The Buddhist Teaching on Physical Phenomena

Preface

That which is made of iron, wood or hemp is not a strong bond, say the 
wise; (but) that longing for jewels, ornaments, children and wives is 
far greater an attachment.

                                                      Dhammapada (vs. 
345).

Attachment to people and possessions is strong, almost irresistable. 
We are infatuated by what we see, hear, smell, taste, experience 
through the bodysense and through the mind. However, all the different 
things we experience do not last. We lose people who are dear to us 
and we lose our possessions. We can find out that attachment leads to 
sorrow, but at the moments of attachment we do not want to accept the 
truth of the impermanence of all things. We want pleasant objects for 
ourselves, and we consider the "self" the most important matter in the 
world. 
Through the Buddhist teachings we learn that what we take for "self", 
for "our mind" and for "our body", consists of changing phenomena. 
That part of the Buddhist teachings which is the "Abhidhamma" 
enumerates and classifies all phenomena of our life: mental phenomena 
or nåma and physical phenomena or rúpa. Seeing is nåma, it experiences 
visible object through the eye-door. Visible object or colour is rúpa, 
it does not experience anything. The eyesense, which functions as the 
eye-door through which visible object is experienced, is also rúpa. 
The rúpas that are the sense objects of visible object, sound, smell, 
flavour and tangible object and the rúpas that are the sense organs of 
eyes, ears, nose, tongue and bodysense, are conditions for the nåmas 
which experience objects. Nåma and rúpa are interrelated. 
Nåma and rúpa are ultimate realities. We should know the difference 
bewteen ultimate truth and conventional truth. Conventional truth is 
the world of concepts such as person, tree or animal. Before we learnt 
about Buddhism, conventional truth, the world of concepts, was the 
only truth we knew. It is useful to examine the meaning of concept, in 
Påli: paññatti. The word concept can stand for the name or term that 
conveys an idea and it can also stand for the idea itself conveyed by 
a term. Thus, the name "tree" is a concept, and also the idea we form 
up of "tree" is a concept. A tree is actually a conglomeration of 
things; the component parts are just different rúpas. The rúpas of 
which a tree consists do not last, they arise and fall away. Through 
the eyes only the rúpa that is visible object or colour can be 
experienced; through touch hardness, another type of rúpa, can be 
experienced. Visible object and hardness are ultimate realities, 
paramattha dhammas, each with their own characteristic. These 
characteristics do not change, they can be experienced without having 
to name them. Colour is always colour, hardness is always hardness, 
even when we give them another name. The whole day we touch things 
such as a fork, a plate or a chair. We believe that we know in
stantaneously what different things are, but after the 
sense-impressions such as seeing or the experience of tactile object 
through the bodysense, there are complicated processes of memory of 
former experiences and of classification, and these moments succeed 
one another very rapidly. Concepts are conceived through thinking. We 
remember the form and shape of things, we know what different things 
are and what they are used for. We could not lead our daily life 
without conventional realities; we do not have to avoid the world of 
conventional truth. However, in between the moments of thinking of 
concepts, understanding of ultimate realities, of nåma and rúpa, can 
be developed. The development of understanding does not prevent us 
from doing all the chores of daily life, from talking to other people, 
from helping them or from being generous to them. We could not perform 
deeds of generosity if we would not think of conventional realities, 
such as the things we are giving or the person to whom we give. But 
through the development of understanding we will learn to distinguish 
between absolute truth and conventional truth. 
The "Abhidhammattha Sangaha", a compendium of the Abhidhamma composed 
in India at a later time [1], states that concepts are only shadows of 
realities. When we watch T.V., we see projected images of people and 
we know that through the eyesense only visible object is seen, no 
people. Also when we look at the persons we meet, only colour is 
experienced through the eyesense. In the ultimate sense there are no 
people. Although they seem very real they are only shadows of what is 
really there. The truth is different from what we always assumed. A 
person is a temporary combination of realities that are constantly in 
a process of formation and dissolution, and thus the flux of life goes 
on. We cling to a conglomeration of different objects, we take these 
as a solid "whole". So long as we do not see the disruption of the 
continuity of body and mind we continue to believe in a lasting 
self.     
Ultimate realities are impermanent, they arise and fall away. Concepts 
of people and things do not arise and fall away; they are objects of 
thinking, not real in the ultimate sense. Nåma and rúpa, not concepts, 
are the objects of understanding. The purpose of the development of 
the eightfold Path is seeing ultimate realities as impermanent, 
suffering and non-self. If the difference between concepts and 
ultimate realities is not known the eightfold Path cannot be 
developed. The eightfold Path, that is, right understanding of nåma 
and rúpa, is developed through direct awareness of them. However, this 
is difficult and it can only be learnt very gradually. When there is 
direct awareness of one object at a time as it appears through one of 
the senses or through the mind-door, there is no thinking of a concept 
of a "whole" at that moment. The study of rúpas can help us to have 
more understanding of the sense objects and of the doorways of the 
senses through which these objects are experienced. If we do not have 
a foundation knowledge of objects and doorways we cannot know how to 
be aware of one reality at a time as it appears at the present moment. 
The study of nåma and rúpa is a condition for the arising of direct 
awareness later on. 
The study of rúpas is not the study of physics or medical science. The 
aim of the understanding of nåma and rúpa is the eradication of the 
wrong view of self and freedom from enslavement to defilements. So 
long as one clings to an idea of self who owns things, it can give 
rise to avarice and jealousy which may even motivate bad deeds such as 
stealing or killing. Defilements cannot be eradicated immediately, but 
when we begin to understand that our life is only one moment of 
experiencing an object through one of the six doorways, there will be 
less clinging to the idea of an abiding ego, of a person or self. 
All three parts of the Buddha's teachings, namely the Vinaya (Book of 
Discipline for the monks), the Suttanta (Discourses) and the 
Abhidhamma point to the same goal: the eradication of defilements. 
From my quotations of sutta texts the reader can see that there is 
also Abhidhamma in the suttas, thus, that the teachings are one, the 
teaching of the Buddha. I have added questions at the end of each 
chapter in order to encourage the reader to check his understanding. I 
have used Påli terms next to the English equivalents in order to help 
the reader to know the precise meaning of the realities explained in 
the Abhidhamma. The English terms have a specific meaning in the 
context of conventional use and they do not render the precise meaning 
of the reality represented by the Påli term. The texts from which I 
have quoted, including the scriptures and the commentaries, have been 
translated into English by the Påli Text Society [2]. 
The first of the seven books of the Abhidhamma, the "Dhammasangaùi", 
translated as "Buddhist Psychological Ethics" [3], is a compilation of 
all nåma and rúpa, of all that is real. The source for my book on 
physical phenomena is that part of the "Dhammasangaùi" which deals 
with this subject, as well as the commentary to this book, the 
"Atthasåliní", translated as "Expositor" [4] , written by the venerable 
Buddhaghosa. I also used the "Visuddhimagga", translated as "The Path 
of Purification", an encyclopedia by the venerable Buddhaghosa [5]. 
May this book on rúpas help the reader to develop right understanding 
of nåma and rúpa! 

*********
Footnotes

1.This work has been ascribed to Anuruddha. It has been translated 
into English by the P.T.S. under the title of "Compendium of 
Philosophy", and by Ven. Nårada, Colombo, under the title of "A Manual 
of Abhidhamma".
2. 73 Lime Walk, Headington, Oxford OX 37, 7 AD.
3. Pali Text Society, 1974.
4. Pali Text Society, 1958.
5. I used the translation of Ven. Nyåùamoli , 1964, Colombo, Sri 
Lanka. There is another translation by Pe Maung Tin under the title of 
"The Path of Purity", P.T.S. 

*******
Introduction

The Abhidhamma teaches us that in the ultimate sense our life is nåma 
and rúpa that arise because of their appropriate conditions and then 
fall away. What we take for person or self is citta 1 or 
consciousness,  cetasika 2 or mental factors arising with the citta, 
and rúpa or physical phenomena. Citta and cetasika are nåma, they 
experience objects, whereas rúpa does not know anything. Citta 
experiences sense objects through the five senses. The sense objects 
as well as the sense organs are rúpas. The five senses by means of 
which cittas experience an object are called doors. When we think of 
something we saw or heard citta does not experience an object through 
a sense-door but through another door: the mind-door. Thus there are 
six doorways. Through the mind-door citta can experience ultimate 
realities, nåma and rúpa, as well as concepts.
Citta experiences only one object and then it falls away to be 
succeeded by the next citta. We may have thought that there is one 
consciousness that lasts, that can see, hear and think, but this is 
not so. There can be only one citta at a time: at one moment there is 
a citta that sees, at another moment a citta that hears and at another 
moment again a citta that thinks. In our life there is an unbroken 
series of cittas arising in succession.
Cittas can be good or wholesome, kusala cittas, they can be 
unwholesome, akusala cittas, or they can be neither kusala nor 
akusala. Seeing, for example, is neither kusala nor akusala, it only 
experiences visible object through the eye-door. After seeing has 
fallen away, visible object is experienced by kusala cittas or by 
akusala cittas. Thus, when an object impinges on one of the six doors 
there are different types of cittas arising in a series or process and 
all of them experience that object. They arise in a specific order 
within the process and there is no self who can prevent their arising. 
There are processes of cittas experiencing an object through each of 
the five sense-doors and through the mind-door. 
There is one citta at a time, but each citta is accompanied by several 
cetasikas or mental factors that share the same object with the citta 
but perform each their own function. Some cetasikas such as feeling 
and remembrance or "perception" (saññå) accompany each citta, others 
do not. Unwholesome mental factors, akusala cetasikas, only accompany 
akusala cittas, whereas "beautiful" mental factors (sobhana) cetasikas 
accompany kusala cittas. 

As regards physical phenomena or rúpa, there are twentyeight kinds of 
rúpa in all. Rúpas are not merely textbook terms, they are realities 
that can be directly experienced. Rúpas do not know or experience 
anything; they can be known by nåma. Rúpa arises and falls away, but 
it does not fall away as quickly as nåma. When a characteristic of 
rúpa such as hardness impinges on the bodysense it can be experienced 
through the bodysense by several cittas arising in succession within a 
process. But even though rúpa lasts longer than citta, it falls away 
again, it is impermanent. 
Rúpas do not arise singly, they arise in units or groups. What we take 
for our body is composed of many groups or units, consisting each of 
different kinds of rúpa, and the rúpas in such a group arise together 
and fall away together. The reader will come across four conditioning 
factors that produce rúpas of the body: kamma, citta, temperature and 
food. The last three factors are easier to understand, but the first 
factor, kamma, is harder to understand since kamma is a factor of the 
past.  We can perform good and bad deeds through body, speech and mind 
and these can produce their appropriate results later on. Such deeds 
are called kamma, but when we are more precise kamma is actually the 
cetasika volition or intention (cetanå) that motivates the deed. Kamma 
is a mental activity and thus its force can be accumulated. Since 
cittas that arise and fall away succeed one another in an unbroken 
series, the force of kamma is carried on from one moment of citta to 
the next moment of citta, from one life to the next life. In this way 
kamma is capable to produce its result later on. A good deed, kusala 
kamma, can produce a pleasant result, and an evil deed can produce an 
unpleasant result. Kamma produces result at the first moment of life: 
it produces rebirth-consciousness in a happy plane of existence such 
as the human plane or a heavenly plane, or in an unhappy plane of 
existence such as a hell plane or the animal world. Throughout life 
kamma produces seeing, hearing and the other sense-impressions that 
are vipåkacittas, cittas that are results. Vipåkacittas are neither 
kusala cittas nor akusala cittas. Seeing a pleasant object is the 
result of kusala kamma and seeing an unpleasant object is the result 
of akusala kamma. Due to kamma gain and loss, praise and blame alter
nate in our life. 
Rebirth-consciousness is the mental result of kamma, but at that 
moment kamma also produces rúpas and kamma keeps on producing rúpas 
throughout life; when it stops producing rúpas our life-span    has to 
end. Kamma produces particular kinds of rúpas such as the senses, as 
we shall see. Citta also produces rúpas. Our different moods become 
evident by our facial expressions and then it is clear that citta 
produces rúpas. Temperature, which is actually the element of heat, 
also produces rúpas. The unborn being in the womb, for example, needs 
the right temperature in order to grow. Throughout life the element of 
heat produces rúpas. Nutrition is another factor that produces rúpas. 
When food has been taken by a living being it is assimilated into the 
body and then nutrition can produce rúpas. Some of the groups of rúpas 
of our body are produced by kamma, some by citta, some by temperature 
and some by nutrition. The four factors which produce the rúpas of our 
body support and consolidate each other and keep this shortlived body 
going. If we see the intricate way in which different factors 
condition the rúpas of our body we shall be less inclined to think 
that the body belongs to a self.
There are not only rúpas of the body, there are also rúpas which are 
the material phenomena outside the body. What we take for rocks, 
plants or houses are rúpas and these originate from temperature. We 
may wonder whether there are no other factors apart from the element 
of heat that contribute to the growth of plants, such as soil, light 
and moisture. It is true that these factors are the right conditions 
that have to be present so that a plant can grow. But what we call 
soil, light and moisture are, when we are more precise, different 
combinations of rúpas, none of which can arise without the element of 
heat or temperature that produces them. Rúpas outside the body are 
only produced by temperature, not by kamma, citta or nutrition.
Rúpas perform their functions, no matter one dresses oneself, eats, 
digests one's food, moves about, gesiticulates, talks to others, in 
short, during all one's activities. If we do not study rúpas we may 
not notice their characteristics appearing all the time in daily life. 
We shall continue to be deluded by the outward appearance of things 
instead of knowing realities as they are. We should remember that the 
rúpa which is the "earth-element" or solidity can appear as hardness 
or softness. Hardness impinges time and again on the bodysense, no 
matter what we are doing. When hardness appears it can be known as 
only a kind of rúpa, be it hardness of the body or hardness of an 
external object. In the ultimate sense it is only a kind of rúpa. The 
detailed study of nåma and rúpa will help us to see that there isn't 
anything that is "mine" or self. The goal of the study of the 
Abhidhamma is the development of wisdom leading to the eradication of 
all defilements.

********
Footnotes

1. Pronounced as chitta
2. pronounced as chetasika.


Chapter 1 

The Four Great Elements

Rúpas do not arise singly, they arise in units or groups. Each of 
these groups is composed of different kinds of rúpa. There are four 
kinds of rúpa, the four "Great Elements" (Mahå-bhúta rúpas), which 
have to arise together with each and every group of rúpas, no matter 
whether these are of rúpas of the body or rúpas outside the body. The 
types of rúpa other than the four Great Elements depend on these four 
rúpas and cannot arise without them. They are the following rúpas:

the Element of Earth or solidity
the Element of Water or cohesion
the Element of Fire or heat
the Element of Wind (air) or motion

Earth, Water, Fire and Wind do not in this context have the same 
meaning as in conventional language, neither do they represent 
conceptual ideas as we find them in different philosophical systems. 
In the Abhidhamma they represent ultimate realities, specific rúpas 
each with their own characteristic. The Element of Earth (in Påli: 
paìhaví dhåtu), translated into English as "solidity" or "extension", 
has the characteristic of hardness or softness. It can be directly 
experienced when we touch something hard or soft. We do not have to 
name the rúpa designated by "Element of Earth" in order to experience 
it. It is an element that arises and falls away; it has no abiding 
substance, it is devoid of a "self". It may seem that hardness can 
last for some time, but in reality it falls away immediately. Rúpas 
are replaced so long as there are conditions for them to be produced 
by one of the four factors of kamma, citta, temperature or nutrition 1
. The hardness that is experienced now is already different from the 
hardness that arose a moment ago.
We used to think that a cushion or a chair could be experienced 
through touch. When we are more precise, it is hardness or softness 
that can be experienced through touch. Because of association and 
remembrance of former experiences we can think of a cushion or chair 
and we know that they are named "cushion" or "chair". This example can 
remind us that there is a difference between ultimate realities and 
concepts we can think of but which are not real in the ultimate sense. 
Viewing the body and the things around us as different combinations of 
rúpas may be a new outlook to us. Gradually we shall realize that 
rúpas are not abstract categories, but that they are realities 
appearing in daily life. I shall quote the definitions of the 
different rúpas given by the commentaries, the "Visuddhimagga" and the 
"Atthasåliní". These definitions mention the characteristic, function, 
manifestation and proximate cause or immediate occasion 2 of the rúpas 
that are explained. The "Visuddhimagga" (XI,93) 3 gives, for example, 
the following definition of the rúpa that is the earth element or 
solidity:

...The earth element has the characteristic of hardness. Its function 
is to act as a foundation. It is manifested as receiving 4...

As to the proximate cause, I shall deal with that later on. Each 
reality has its own individual characteristic by which it can be 
distinguished from other realities. Solidity has hardness (or 
softness) as characteristic, the fire element has heat as charac
teristic. Such characteristics can be experienced when they appear. As 
to function, rúpas have functions in relation to other rúpas or in 
relation to nåma. Solidity acts as a foundation, namely for the other 
rúpas it arises together with in a group, that is its function. Smell, 
for example, could not arise alone, it needs solidity as foundation. 
It is the same with visible object or colour that can be experienced 
through the eyesense. Visible object or colour needs solidity as 
foundation or support, it could not arise alone. Solidity that arises 
together with visible object cannot be seen, only visible object can 
be seen. As regards manifestation, this is the way a reality 
habitually appears. Solidity is manifested as receiving, it receives 
the other rúpas it arises together with since it acts as their 
foundation. With regard to the proximate cause, according to the 
"Visuddhimagga" (XIV,35) each of the four Great Elements has the other 
three as its proximate cause. The four Great Elements arise together 
and condition one another. 
At first the definitions of realities may seem complicated but when we 
have studied them we shall see that they are helpful for the 
understanding of the different realities, and this includes 
understanding of the way they act on other realities and the way they 
manifest themselves. The study of realities is a foundation for the 
development of direct understanding, of seeing things as they really 
are.
In the "Greater Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant's Footprint" 
(Middle Length Sayings I, no. 28) we read that Såriputta taught the 
monks about the four Great Elements. We read about the element of 
earth or solidity, which is translated here as "extension": 

....And what, your reverences, is the element of extension? The 
element of extension may be internal, it may be external. And what, 
your reverences, is the internal element of extension? Whatever is 
hard, solid, is internal, referable to an individual and derived 
therefrom, that is to say: the hair of the head, the hair of the body, 
nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow of the bones, kidney, 
heart, liver, pleura, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentary, stomach, 
excrement, or whatever other thing is hard, solid, is internal....

If the body can be seen as only elements the wrong view of self can be 
eradicated. Solidity can be internal or external, outside the body. 
Solidity is also present in what we call a mountain or a rock, in all 
material phenomena. Såriputta reminded the monks of the impermanence 
of the element of extension:

There comes a time, your reverences, when the element of extension 
that is external is agitated; at that time the external element of 
extension disappears. The impermanence of this ancient external 
element of extension can be shown, your reverences, its liability to 
distruction can be shown, its liability to decay can be shown, its 
liability to change can be shown. So what of this shortlived body 
derived from craving? There is not anything here for saying, "I", or 
"mine" or "I am"....

The impermanence of the element of solidity may manifest itself in 
such calamities of nature as an earthquake, but actually at each 
moment rúpas arise and then fall away, they do not last.
As regards the Element of Water (in Påli: åpo dhåtu) or cohesion, the 
"Visuddhimagga" (XI, 93) defines it as follows 5 : 

...The water element has the characteristic of trickling. Its function 
is to intensify. It is manifested as holding together.

The element of water or cohesion cannot be experienced through the 
bodysense, only through the mind-door. When we touch what we call 
water, it is only solidity, temperature or motion which can be 
experienced through the bodysense, not cohesion. Cohesion has to arise 
together with whatever kind of materiality arises. It makes the other 
rúpas it accompanies cohere so that they do not become scattered. The 
"Atthasåliní " (II, Book II, Ch III, 335) explains:

... For the element of cohesion binds together iron, etc., in masses, 
makes them rigid. Because they are so bound, they are called rigid. 
Similarly in the case of stones, mountains, palm-seeds, 
elephant-tusks, ox-horns, etc. All such things the element of cohesion 
binds, and makes rigid; they are rigid because of its binding.

We read in the above quoted sutta that Såriputta explained to the 
monks about the internal liquid element (element of water):

.... Whatever is liquid, fluid, is internal, referable to an 
individual or derived therefrom, that is to say: bile, phlegm, pus, 
blood, sweat, fat, tears, serum, saliva, mucus, synovial fluid, urine 
or whatever other thing is liquid, fluid, is internal....

When we shed tears or swallow saliva we can be reminded that what we 
take for the fluid of "my body" are only elements devoid of self. 
Såriputta reminded the monks that the external liquid element can 
become agitated and can bring destruction to villages, towns, 
districts and regions, or that the water of the oceans may go down and 
disappear. It is liable to change and it is impermanent. Both the 
internal and the external liquid element are impermanent and not self.
As to the Element of Fire, heat or temperature (in Påli: tejo dhåtu),  
the "Visuddhimagga" (XI, 93) gives the following definition of it 6 :

...The fire element has the characteristic of heat. Its function is to 
mature (maintain). It is manifested as a continued supply of softness 7
 .

The element of heat or temperature can be experienced through the 
bodysense and it appears as heat or cold. Cold is a lesser degree of 
heat. The element of heat accompanies all kinds of materiality that 
arises, rúpas of the body and materiality outside. It maintains or 
matures them. The element of heat is one of the four factors that 
produce rúpas of the body. Kamma produces rúpa from the first moment 
of life and after that temperature also starts to produce rúpas of the 
body. Rúpas which are materiality outside such as those of a plant or 
a rock are produced solely by temperature. 
We read in the above quoted sutta that Såriputta explained to the 
monks about the internal element of heat:

... Whatever is heat, warmth, is internal, referable to an individual 
and derived therefrom, such as by whatever one is vitalized, by 
whatever one is consumed, by whatever one is burnt up, and by whatever 
one has munched, drunk, eaten and tasted that is properly transmuted 
(in digestion), or whatever other thing is heat, warmth, is 
internal....

The "Visuddhimagga" (XI, 36) which gives an explanation of the words 
of this sutta states that the element of heat plays its part in the 
process of ageing: "... whereby this body grows old, reaches the 
decline of the faculties, loss of strength, wrinkles, greyness, and so 
on." As to the expression "burnt up", it explains that when one is 
excited the internal element of heat causes the body to burn. The 
element of heat also has a function in the digestion of food, it 
"cooks" what is eaten and drunk.
We may notice changes in body-temperature because of different 
conditions, for instance through the digestion of our food, or when we 
are excited, angry or afraid. So long as we are still alive the 
internal element of heat arises and falls away all the time. When heat 
presents itself and there is awareness of it it can be known as only a 
rúpa element, not "my body-heat". When we are absorbed in excitement, 
anger or fear we forget that there are in reality only different kinds 
of nåma and rúpa that arise and fall away. 
The element of heat can be internal or external. Såriputta explained 
that the liability to change of the external heat element and its 
impermanence can be seen when it becomes agitated and burns up 
villages, towns, districts and regions, and is then extinguished 
through lack of fuel. Both the internal and the external element of 
heat are impermanent and not self.
As to the Element of Wind (in Påli: våyo dhåtu) or motion, the 
"Visuddhimagga" (XI, 93) defines it as follows 8 : 

... The air element (wind) has the characteristic of distending. Its 
function is to cause motion. It is manifested as conveying.

We may believe that we can see motion of objects but the rúpa which is 
motion cannot be seen. What we mean by motion as we express it in 
conventional language is not the same as the element of wind or 
motion. We can conclude that something has moved because there are 
different moments of seeing and thinking, and there is association of 
these different experiences, but that is not the experience of the 
rúpa which is motion. This rúpa can be directly experienced through 
the bodysense. When we touch a body or an object with a certain 
resilience, the characteristic of motion or pressure may present 
itself. These are characteristics of the element of wind. It can also 
be described as vibration or oscillation. As we read in the 
definition, the function of the element of wind is to cause motion and 
it is manifested as conveying. It is, for example, a condition for the 
movement of the limbs of the body. However, we should not confuse 
pictorial ideas with the direct experience of this rúpa through the 
bodysense. 
The element of wind or motion arises with all kinds of materiality, 
both of the body and outside the body. There is also motion with dead 
matter, such as a pot. It performs its function so that the pot holds 
its shape and does not collapse.
Såriputta explained about the internal element of motion:

... And what, your reverences, is the internal element of motion? 
Whatever is motion, wind, is internal, referable to an individual and 
derived therefrom, such as winds going upwards, winds going downwards, 
winds in the abdomen, winds in the belly, winds that shoot across the 
several limbs, in-breathing, out-breathing, or whatever other thing is 
motion, wind, is internal....


We may notice pressure inside the body. When its characteristic 
appears it can be known as only a rúpa that is conditioned. As to the 
words of the sutta, "winds that shoot across the several limbs", the 
"Visuddhimagga" (XI, 37) explains that these are: "winds (forces) that 
produce flexing, extending, etc., and are distributed over the limbs 
and the whole body by means of the network of veins (nerves)". 
The element of wind plays its specific role in the strengthening of 
the body so that it does not collapse, and assumes different postures; 
it is a condition for the stretching and bending of the limbs. While 
we are bending or stretching our arms and legs the element of wind may 
appear as motion or pressure. We read in the "Visuddhimagga" (XI, 92):

The air element that courses through all the limbs and has the 
characteristic of moving and distending, being founded upon earth, 
held together by water, and maintained by fire, distends this body. 
And this body, being distended by the latter kind of air, does not 
collapse, but stands erect, and being propelled by the other (motile) 
air, it shows intimation, and it flexes and extends and it wriggles 
the hands and feet, doing so in the postures comprising walking, 
standing, sitting and lying down. So this mechanism of elements 
carries on like a magic trick, deceiving foolish people with the male 
and female sex and so on.

We are deceived and infatuated by the outward appearance of a man or a 
woman and we forget that this body is a "mechanism of elements" and 
that it flexes and wriggles hands and feet because of conditions.
The above quoted sutta mentions, in connection with the element of 
wind, in-breathing and out-breathing. The "Visuddhimagga" (XI, 37) 
explains: "In-breath: wind in the nostrils entering in. Out-breath: 
wind in the nostrils issuing out." We are breathing throughout life, 
but most of the time we are forgetful of realities, we cling to an 
idea of "my breath". Breath is rúpa conditioned by citta and it 
presents itself where it touches the nosetip or upperlip. If there can 
be awareness of it the characteristics of hardness, softness, heat or 
motion can be experienced one at a time. However, breath is very 
subtle and it is most difficult to be aware of its characteristic. 
We read in the above quoted sutta that Såriputta explained that the 
external element of motion can become agitated and carry away 
villages. Its liability to change and its impermanence can be seen. 
Both the external and the internal element of motion are impermanent. 
As we have seen, the four great Elements always arise together, and 
each of them has the other three as its proximate cause. The 
"Visuddhimagga" (XI, 109) states that the four great Elements 
condition one another: the earth element acts as the foundation of the 
elements of water, fire and air; the water element acts as cohesion 
for the other three Great Elements; the fire element maintains the 
other three Great elements; the air element acts as distension of the 
other three Great Elements.
We should remember that the element of water or cohesion cannot be 
experienced through the bodysense, only through the mind-door, and 
that the elements of earth, fire and wind can be directly experienced 
through the bodysense. The element of earth appears as hardness or 
softness, the element of fire as heat or cold and the element of wind 
as motion or pressure. Time and again rúpas such as hardness or heat 
impinge on the bodysense but we are forgetful of what things really 
are. We let ourselves be deceived by the outer appearance of things. 
The "Visuddhimagga" (XI, 100) states that the four Great Elements are 
"deceivers":

And just as the great creatures known as female spirits (yakkhiní) 
conceal their own fearfulness with a pleasing colour, shape and 
gesture to deceive beings, so too, these elements conceal each their 
own characteristics and function classed as hardness, etc., by means 
of a pleasing skin colour of women's and men's bodies, etc., and 
pleasing shapes of limbs and pleasing gestures of fingers, toes and 
eyebrows, and they deceive simple people by concealing their own 
functions and characteristics beginning with hardness and do not allow 
their individual essences to be seen....

The "Visuddhimagga" (XI, 98) states that the four Great Elements are 
like the great creatures of a magician who "turns water that is not 
crystal into crystal, and turns a clod that is not gold into gold...." 
We are attached to crystal and gold, we are deceived by the outward 
appearance of things. There is no crystal or gold in the ultimate 
sense, only rúpas which arise and then fall away.
We may be able to know the difference between moments that we are 
absorbed in concepts and ideas and moments that there is mindfulness 
of realities such as hardness or heat which appear one at a time. 
Mindfulness (sati) arises with kusala citta and it is mindful of one 
nåma or rúpa at a time. When we are, for example, stung by a mosquito, 
we may have aversion towards the pain and there may be forgetfulness 
of realities. But when there are conditions for kusala citta with 
mindfulness a rúpa such as heat can be object of mindfulness. This is 
the way to gradually develop the understanding which knows nåma and 
rúpa as they are: only elements that are impermanent and devoid of 
self.
As we read in the "Greater Discourse of the Simile of the Elephant's 
Footprint", different "parts of the body" are mentioned where the 
characteristics of the four Great Elements are apparent. The aim is to 
see the body as it really is. When Såriputta explained about the four 
Great Elements he repeated after each section:

...By means of perfect intuitive wisdom it should be seen of this as 
it really is, thus: This is not mine, this am I not, this is not 
myself....

*********

Questions

1. Can the element of water be experienced through touch?
2. Can the characteristic of motion be experienced through 
eyesense?
3. What is the proximate cause of each of the four Great Elements?


*****










Footnotes

1. See Introduction. This will be explained further on.
2.The Atthasåliní explains these terms in Book I, Part II, Analysis of 
Terms, 63. 
3. See also Dhammasangaùi § 648, and Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part 
I,                  Ch III, 332. 
4. See Atthasåliní II, Part I, Ch III, 332, which states that is 
function is being a fulcrum or platform of coexisting dhammas and that 
its manifestation is receiving them. 
5. See also Dhammasangaùi § 652 and Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part 
I,    Ch III, 332.
6. See also Dhammasangaùi § 648 and Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part 
I,    Ch III, 332.
7. The Atthasåliní (II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 332) states that it 
has "the gift of softening (co-existent realities) as manifestation".




*********





















     Chapter 2. 

The Eight  Inseparable Rúpas

The four Great Elements of solidity, cohesion, temperature and motion 
are always present wherever there is materiality. Apart from these 
four elements there are other rúpas, namely twentyfour "derived rúpas" 
(in Påli: upådå rúpas). The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Ch III, 305) 
explains about them: "... grasping the great essentials (great 
elements), not letting go, such (derived rúpas) proceed in dependance 
upon them." Thus, the derived rúpas could not arise without the four 
Great Elements. But not all kinds of derived rúpas arise with every 
group of rúpas. However, four among the derived rúpas always arise 
together with the four Great Elements in every group of rúpas and are 
thus present wherever there is materiality, no matter whether rúpas of 
the body or materiality outside the body. These four rúpas are the 
following: 

visible object (or colour)
odour
flavour
nutrition

The four Great elements and these four derived rúpas, which always 
arise together, are called the "inseparable rúpas" (in Påli: 
avinibbhoga rúpas). Wherever there is solidity, there also have to be 
cohesion, temperature, motion, colour, odour, flavour and nutritive 
essence.
As regards visible object or colour, this is a rúpa arising with every 
kind of materiality. It is that which is experienced through the 
eye-door. It is not a thing or a person. Visible object is the only 
rúpa that can be seen.
Colours are different because of different conditions 1 , but no 
matter what colour appears we should remember that what is experienced 
through the eye-door is the rúpa which is visible, visible object. The 
"Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Ch III, 318) gives the following 
definition of visible object 2 : 

... For all this matter has the characteristic of striking the eye, 
the function or property of being in relation of object to visual 
cognition, the manifestation of being the field of visual cognition, 
the proximate cause of the "four great essentials" (four Great 
Elements).

Visible object has as its proximate cause the four Great Elements 
because it cannot arise without them. However, when a characteristic 
of one of these four Great Elements, such as hardness or heat, is 
experienced, the accompanying visible object cannot be experienced at 
the same time.
When there are conditions for seeing, visible object is experienced. 
When we close our eyes, there may be remembrance of the shape and form 
of a thing, but that is not the experience of visible object. The 
thinking of a "thing", no matter whether our eyes are closed or open, 
is different from the actual experience of what is visible. 
We may find it difficult to know what visible object is, since we are 
usually absorbed in paying attention to the shape and form of things. 
When we perceive the shape and form of something, for example of a 
chair, we think of a concept. A chair cannot impinge on the eyesense. 
Seeing does not see a chair, it only sees what is visible. Seeing and 
thinking occur at different moments. There is not thinking all the 
time, there are also moments of just seeing, moments that we do not 
pay attention to shape and form. There can be only one citta at a time 
experiencing one object, but different experiences arise closely one 
after the other. When one cannot distinguish them yet from each other, 
one believes that they occur all at the same time. If we remember that 
visible object is the rúpa which can be experienced through the 
eyesense, right understanding of this reality can be developed. 
As we have seen, odour is another rúpa among the eight inseparable 
rúpas. Wherever there is materiality, no matter whether of the body or 
outside the body, there has to be odour. The "Dhammasangaùi" (§ 625) 
mentions different odours, pleasant and unpleasant, but they all are 
just odour which can be experienced through the nose. The 
"Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Ch III, 320) defines odour as follows 3 : 

... all odours have the characteristic of striking the sense of smell, 
the property of being the object of olfactory cognition, the 
manifestation of being the field of the same....

It has as proximate cause the four Great Elements. Odour cannot arise 
alone, it needs the four Great Elements which arise together with it 
and it is also accompanied by the other rúpas included in the eight 
inseparable rúpas. When odour appears we tend to be carried away by 
like or dislike. We are attached to fragrant odours and we loathe 
nasty smells. However, odour is only a reality which is experienced 
through the nose and it does not last. If one does not develop 
understanding of realities one will be enslaved by all objects 
experienced through the senses. On account of these objects akusala 
cittas tend to arise and even unwholesome deeds may be committed. When 
someone thinks that there is a self who can own what is seen, touched 
or smelt, he may even steal or kill. In reality all these objects are 
insignificant, they arise and then fall away immediately. 
As regards flavour, the "Dhammasangaùi" (§ 629) mentions different 
kinds of flavour, such as sour, sweet, bitter or pungent; they may be 
nice or nauseous, but they are all just flavour, experienced through 
the tongue. The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Ch III, 320) defines 
flavour as follows 4 : 

... all tastes have the characteristic of striking the tongue, the 
property of being the object of gustatory cognition, the manifestation 
of being the field of the same....

Its proximate cause is the four Great Elements. Flavour does not arise 
alone, it needs the four Great Elements which arise together with it, 
and it is also accompanied by the other rúpas included in the eight 
inseparable rúpas. We are attached to food and we find its flavour 
very important. As soon as we have tasted delicious flavour attachment 
tends to arise. We are forgetful of the reality of flavour which is 
only a kind of rúpa. When we recognize what kind of flavour we taste, 
we think about a concept, but the thinking is conditioned by the 
experience of flavour through the tongue.
Nutrition is another kind of rúpa which has to arise with every kind 
of materiality. It can be exerienced only through the mind-door. The 
"Dhammasangaùi" (§ 646) mentions food such as boiled rice, sour gruel, 
flour, etc., which can be eaten and digested into the "juice" by which 
living beings are kept alive. The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Ch III, 
330) explains that there is foodstuff, the substance which is 
swallowed (kabaîinkåro åhåro, literally, morsel-made food), and the 
"nutritive essence"(ojå). The foodstuff which is swallowed fills the 
stomach so that one does not grow hungry. The nutritive essence 
present in food preserves beings, keeps them alive. The nutritive 
essence in gross foodstuff is weak, and in subtle foodstuff it is 
strong. After eating coarse grain one becomes hungry after a brief 
interval. But when one has taken ghee (butter) one does not want to 
eat for a long time (Atthasåliní, 331).
The "Atthasåliní"(332) gives the following definition of nutriment 5 : 

As to its characteristic, etc., solid food has the characteristic of 
nutritive essence, the function of fetching matter (to the eater), of 
sustaining matter as its manifestation, of substance to be swallowed 
as proximate cause.

Nutritive essence is not only present in rice and other foods, it is 
also present in what we call a rock or sand. It is present in any kind 
of materiality. Insects are able to digest what human beings cannot 
digest, such as, for example, wood.
Nutrition is one of the four factors which produce rúpas of the body. 
As we have seen, the other factors are kamma, citta and temperature 6. 
In the unborn being in the mother's womb, groups of rúpa produced by 
nutrition arise as soon as the nutritive essence present in food taken 
by its mother pervades its body (Visuddhimagga XVII, 194). From then 
on nutrition keeps on producing rúpas and sustaining the rúpas of the 
body throughout life. 
We can notice that nutrition produces rúpas when good or bad food 
affects the body in different ways. Bad food may cause the skin to be 
ugly, whereas the taking of vitamins for example may cause skin and 
hair to look healthy.
Because of attachment we are inclined to be immoderate as to food. We 
forget to consider food as a medicine for our body. The Buddha 
exhorted the monks to eat just the quantity of food needed to sustain 
the body but not more and to reflect wisely when eating (Visuddhimagga 
I, 85). The monk should review with understanding the requisites he 
receives. We read in the "Visuddhimagga" (I, 124):

... For use is blameless in one who at the time of receiving robes, 
etc., reviews them either as (mere) elements or as repulsive, and puts 
them aside for later use, and in one who reviews them thus at the time 
of using them. 

The monk should review robes, and the other requisites of dwelling, 
food and medicines, as mere elements or as repulsive. If he considers 
food as repulsive it helps him not to indulge in it. Food consists 
merely of conditioned elements. This can be a useful reminder, also 
for laypeople, to be mindful when eating.
In the Commentary to the "Satipaììhåna Sutta" 7, in the section on 
Mindfulness of the Body, "Clear Comprehension in Partaking of Food and 
Drink", we read that, when one swallows food, there is no one who puts 
the food down into the stomach with a ladle or spoon, but there is the 
element of wind performing its function. We then read about digestion:

... There is no one who having put up an oven and lit a fire is 
cooking each lump standing there. By only the process of caloricity 
(heat) the lump of food matures. There is no one who expels each 
digested lump with a stick or pole. Just the process of oscillation 
(the element of wind or motion) expels the digested food. 

There is no self who eats and drinks, there are only elements 
performing their functions.
Whatever kind of materiality arises, there have to be the four Great 
Elements and the four derived rúpas of visible object, odour, flavour 
and nutrition.
Because of ignorance we are attached to our possessions. We may 
understand that when life ends we cannot possess anything anymore. But 
even at this moment there is no "thing" we can possess, there are only 
different elements that do not stay. When we look at beautiful things 
such as gems we tend to cling to them. However, through the eyes only 
colour or visible object appears and through touch tangible object 
such as hardness appears. In the absolute sense it does not make any 
difference whether it is hardness of a gem or hardness of a pebble 
that is experienced through touch. We may not like to accept this 
truth since we find that gems and pebbles have different values. We 
have accumulated conditions to think about concepts and do not develop 
understanding of realities; we tend to forget that what we call gems 
and also the cittas that enjoy them do not last, they are gone 
immediately. Someone who leads the life of a layman enjoys his 
possessions, but he can also develop understanding of what things 
really are. 
In the ultimate sense life exists only in one moment, the present 
moment. At the moment of seeing the world of visible object is 
experienced, at the moment of hearing the world of sound, and at the 
moment of touching the world of tangible object. Life is actually one 
moment of experiencing an object.
The "Book of Analysis" 8 (Part 3, Analysis of the Elements, § 173) 
mentions precious stones together with pebbles and gravel in order to 
remind us of the truth. It explains about the internal element of 
extension (solidity) as being hair of the head, hair of the body and 
other "parts of the body". Then it explains about the external element 
of extension as follows:

Therein what is the external element of extension? That which is 
external, hard, harsh, hardness, being hard, external, not grasped. 
For example: iron, copper, tin, lead, silver, pearl, gem, cat's-eye, 
shell, stone, coral, silver coin, gold, ruby, variegated precious 
stone, grass, wood, gravel, potsherd, earth, rock, mountain; or 
whatever else there is....

The elements give us pleasure or pain. When we do not realize them as 
they are, we are enslaved by them. We read in the "Kindred 
Sayings"(II, Nidåna-vagga, Ch XIV, Kindred Sayings on Elements, § 34, 
Pain) that the Buddha said to the monks at Såvatthí:

If this earth-element, monks, this water-element, this heat-element, 
this air-element were entirely painful, beset with pain, immersed in 
pain, not immersed in happiness, beings would not be lusting after 
them. But inasmuch as each of these elements is pleasant, beset with 
pleasure, immersed in pleasure, not in pain, therefore it is that 
beings get lusting after them.
If this earth-element, monks, this water-element, this heat-element, 
this air-element were entirely pleasant, beset with pleasure, immersed 
in pleasure, not immersed in pain, beings would not be repelled by 
them. But inasmuch as each of these elements is painful, is beset with 
pain, immersed in pain, not immersed in pleasure, therefore it is that 
beings are repelled by them.

We are bound to be attached to the elements when we buy beautiful 
clothes or enjoy delicious food. We are bound to be repelled by the 
elements when we get hurt or when we are sick. But no matter whether 
the objects we experience are pleasant or unpleasant, we should 
realize them as elements that arise because of their own conditions 
and that do not belong to us.

********
Questions

1. Is there nutrition with matter we call a table?
2. Why are eight rúpas called the "inseparable rúpas"?
3. Nutrition is one of the four factors which can produce rúpa. Can
    it produce the materiality we call "tree"? 


****
Footnotes

1. See also Dhammasangaùi § 617.
2. See also Visuddhimagga XIV, 54
3. See also Visuddhimagga XIV, 56.
4. See also Visuddhimagga XIV, 57.
5. See also Visuddhimagga XIV, 70. 
6. See Introduction. 
7. The Papañcasúdaní. See "The Way of Mindfulness", a translation of   
the Satipaììhåna Sutta, Middle Length Sayings I, 10, and its 
Commentary, by Ven. Soma, B.P.S. Kandy. 
8. Vibhaòga, Second Book of the Abhidhamma, Pali Text Society, 1969.


                 ******

Chapter 3

The Sense-Organs (Pasåda Rúpas)

So long as there are conditions for birth we have to be born and to 
experience pleasant or unpleasant objects. It is kamma that produced 
rebirth-consciousness as well as seeing, hearing and the other 
sense-impressions arising throughout our life. For the experience of 
objects through the senses there have to be sense-organs and these are 
rúpas  produced by kamma as well. The sense-organs (pasåda rúpas) are 
physical results of kamma, whereas seeing, hearing and the other 
sense-impressions are nåma, vipåkacittas which are the mental results 
of   kamma [6]. 
For seeing there must be visible object and also the rúpa which is 
eyesense. Eyesense does not know anything since it is rúpa, but it is 
a necessary condition for seeing. Eyesense is a rúpa in the eye, 
capable of receiving visible object, so that citta can experience it. 
For hearing, the experience of sound, there has to be ear-sense, a 
rúpa in the ear, capable of receiving sound. There must be 
smelling-sense for the experience of odour, tastingsense for the 
experience of flavour and bodysense for the experience of tangible 
object. Thus, there are five kinds of sense-organs.
As regards the eye, the "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Ch III, 306) 
distinguishes between the eye as "compound organ" and as "sentient 
organ", namely the rúpa which is eyesense, situated in the eye [7]. The 
eye as "compound organ" is described as follows:

... a lump of flesh is situated in the cavity of the eye, bound by the 
bone of the cavity of the eye below, by the bone of the brow above, by 
the eye-peaks on both sides, by the brain inside, by the eyelashes 
outside.... Although the world perceives the eye as white, as (of a 
certain) bigness, extension, width, they do not know the real sentient 
eye, but only the physical basis thereof. That lump of flesh situated 
in the cavity of the eye is bound to the brain by sinewy threads. 
Therein are white, black, red, extension, cohesion, heat and mobility. 
The eye is white from the abundance of phlegm, black from that of 
bile, red from that of blood, rigid from the element of extension, 
fluid from that of cohesion, hot from that of heat, and oscillating 
from that of mobility. Such is the compound organ of the eye....

As to the "sentient eye" or eyesense, this is to be found, according 
to the "Atthasåliní", in the middle of the black circle, surrounded by 
white circles, and it permeates the ocular membranes "as sprinkled oil 
permeates seven cotton wicks." We read:

And it is served by the four elements doing the functions of 
sustaining, binding, maturing and vibrating [8], just as a princely boy 
is tended by four nurses doing the functions of holding, bathing, 
dressing and fanning him. And being upheld by the caloric order, by 
thought (citta) and nutriment, and guarded by life and attended by 
colour, odour, taste, etc., the organ, no bigger in size than the head 
of a louse, stands duly fulfilling the nature of the basis and the 
door of visual cognition, etc. ....

The "Visuddhimagga" (XIV, 37) gives the following definition of 
eyesense [9] :

Herein, the eye's characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements 
that is ready for the impact of visible data; or its characteristic is 
sensitivity of primary elements originated by kamma sourcing from 
desire to see. Its function is to pick up (an object) among visible 
data. It is manifested as the footing of eye-consciousness. Its 
proximate cause is primary elements (the four Great Elements) born of 
kamma sourcing from desire to see.

We have desire to see, we are attached to all sense-impressions and, 
thus, there are still conditions for kamma to produce rebirth, to 
produce seeing, hearing and the other sense-impressions, and also to 
produce the sense-organs which are the conditions for the experience 
of sense objects. Also in future lives there are bound to be 
sense-impressions. 
Eyesense seems to last and we are inclined to take it for "self". It 
seems that there can be a long moment of seeing and that the same 
eyesense keeps on performing its function. However, eyesense arises 
and then falls away. At the next moment of seeing there is another 
eyesense again. All these eyesenses are produced by kamma, throughout 
our life. We may find it hard to grasp this truth because we are so 
used to thinking of "my eyesense" and to consider it as something 
lasting. 
The eyesense is extremely small, "no bigger in size than the head of a 
louse", but it seems that the whole wide world comes to us through the 
eye. All that is visible is experienced through the eyesense, but when 
we believe that we see the world there is thinking of a concept, not 
the experience of visible object. However, our thinking is conditioned 
by seeing and by all the other sense-impressions. 
The eye is compared to an ocean [10], because it cannot be filled, it is 
unsatiable. We are attached to the eyesense and we want to go on 
seeing, it never is enough.
We read in the "Kindred Sayings" (IV, Saîåyatana-vagga, Fourth Fifty, 
Ch 3, § 187, The Ocean):

... The eye of a man, monks, is the ocean. Its impulse is made of 
objects. Whoso endures that object-made impulse - of him, monks, it is 
said, "he has crossed over." That ocean of the eye, with its waves and 
whirlpools, its sharks and demons, the brahmin has crossed and gone 
beyond. He stands on dry ground.....

The same is said with regard to the other senses.
We read in the "Therígåthå" (Psalms of the Sisters, Canto XIV, 71, 
Subhå of Jívaka's Mango-grove) that the Therí Subhå became an anågåmí [11]
; she had eradicated clinging to sense objects. A young man, 
infatuated with the beauty of her eyes, wanted to tempt her. She 
warned him not to be deluded by the outward appearance of things. In 
reality there are only elements devoid of self. The Therí said about 
her eye (vs. 395):

What is this eye but a little ball lodged in the fork of a hollow 
                                                                                          
tree,
Bubble of film, anointed with tear-brine, exuding slime-drops.
Compost wrought in the shape of an eye of manyfold aspects?....

The Therí extracted one of her eyes and handed it to him. The impact 
of her lesson did not fail to cure the young man of his lust. Later 
on, in the presence of the Buddha, her eye was restored to her. She 
continued to develop insight and attained arahatship.
Eyesense is only an element devoid of self. It is one of the 
conditions for seeing. The "Visuddhimagga" (XV, 39) states about the 
conditions for seeing: "Eye-consciousness arises due to eye, visible 
object, light and attention". 
Earsense is another one of the sense-organs. It is situated in the 
interior of the ear, "at a spot shaped like a finger-ring and fringed 
by tender, tawny hairs.... " [12]. Earsense is the rúpa which has the 
capability to receive sound. It is basis and door of 
hearing-consciousness. The "Visuddhimagga" (XIV, 38) gives the 
following definition [13]: 

The ear's characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements that is 
ready for impact of sounds; or its characteristic is sensitivity of 
primary elements originated by kamma sourcing from desire to hear. Its 
function is to pick up (an object) among sounds. It is manifested as 
the footing of ear-consciousness. Its proximate cause is primary 
elements born of kamma sourcing from desire to hear.

Without earsense there cannot be hearing. The "Visuddhimagga"  (XV, 
39) states: "Ear-consciousness arises due to ear, sound, aperture and 
attention." "Aperture" is the cavity of the ear. If one of these 
conditions is lacking hearing cannot arise. 
As to the other pasåda rúpas, smellingsense, tastingsense and 
bodysense, these are defined in the same way [14]. Smellingsense is a rúpa 
situated in the nose. It is one of the conditions for smelling. The 
"Visuddhimagga"(XV, 39) states: "Nose-consciousness arises due to 
nose, odour, air (the element of wind or motion) and attention." As to 
the element of wind or motion being a condition, we read in the 
"Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 315):

... the nose desires space, and has for object odour dependent on 
wind. Indeed, cattle at the first showers of rain keep smelling at the 
earth, and turning up their muzzles to the sky breathe in the wind. 
And when a fragrant lump is taken in the fingers and smelt, no smell 
is got when breath is not inhaled....

As to tastingsense, this is situated in the tongue and it is one of 
the conditions for tasting. The "Visuddhimagga" states in the same 
section: "Tongue-consciousness arises due to tongue, flavour, water 
and attention." Also the element of water or cohesion plays its part 
when there is tasting. We read in the "Atthasåliní" (same section, 
315) about the element of water being a condition for tasting:

... Thus even when a bhikkhu's duties have been done during the three 
watches of the night, and he, early in the morning, taking bowl and 
robe, has to enter the village, he is not able to discern the taste of 
dry food unwetted by the saliva....

As to bodysense, this is situated all over the body and inside it, 
except in the hairs or tips of the nails. It is one of the conditions 
for experiencing tactile object. The "Visuddhimagga" states, in the 
same section: "Body-consciousness arises due to body, tangible object, 
earth and attention." The "Atthasåliní" (same section, 315) explains:

... Internal and external extension (solidity) is the cause of the 
tactile sense seizing the object. Thus it is not possible to know the 
hardness or softness of a bed well spread out or of fruits placed in 
the hand, without sitting down on the one or pressing the other. Hence 
internal and external extension is the cause in the tactile cognition 
of the tactile organ.

Thus, when there is tactile cognition, bodyconsciousness, there are 
actually elements impinging on elements. The impact of tactile object 
on the bodysense is more vigorous than the impact of the objects on 
the other senses. According to the "Paramattha Mañjúsa", a commentary 
to the "Visuddhimagga" [15], because of the violence of the impact on the 
bodysense, body-consciousness (kayaviññåùa) is accompanied either by 
pleasant feeling or by painful feeling, not by indifferent feeling, 
whereas the other sense-cognitions (seeing, hearing, etc.) are 
accompanied by indifferent feeling. 
Through the bodysense are experienced: the earth element, appearing as 
hardness or softness; the fire element, appearing as heat or cold; the 
wind element, appearing as motion or pressure. When these 
characteristics appear they can be directly experienced wherever there 
is bodysense, thus also inside the body. 
As we have seen, visible object, sound, odour, flavour and tangible 
object (three of the four Great Elements) are experienced through the 
corresponding sense-doors and they can also be experienced through the 
mind-door. The sense-organs themselves through which the sense-objects 
are experienced are rúpas that can only be known through the mind-door.
The five sense-organs are the bases (vatthus) or places of origin of 
the corresponding sense-cognitions. Cittas do not arise outside the 
body, they are dependent on physical bases where they originate [16]. The 
eyesense is the base where seeing-consciousness originates. The 
earsense is the base where hearing-consciousness originates, and it is 
the same in the case of the other sense-organs. As regards the base 
for body-consciousness, this can be at any place of the body where 
there is sensitivity. The sense-organs are bases only for the 
corresponding sense-cognitions. All the other cittas have another 
base, the heart-base, I shall deal with later on.
The five sense-organs function also as doorways for the five kinds of 
sense-cognitions, as we have seen. The doorway (dvåra) is the means by 
which citta experiences an object. The eyesense is the doorway by 
which seeing-consciousness and also the other cittas arising in that 
process experience visible object. As we have seen, cittas which 
experience objects impinging on the senses and the mind-door time and 
again, arise in processes of cittas [17]. The cittas other than 
seeing-consciousness which arise in the eye-door process do not see, 
but they each perform their own function while they cognize visible 
object, such as considering visible object or investigating it. Each 
of the five sense-organs can be the doorway for all the cittas in the 
process experiencing a sense-object through that doorway. The 
sense-organs can have the function of base as well as doorway only in 
the case of the five sense-cognitions. 
The sense-organs arise and fall away all the time and they are only 
doorway when an object is experienced through that sense-organ. 
Eyesense, for example, is only eye-door when visible object is 
experienced by the cittas arising in the eye-door process. When sound 
is experienced, earsense is doorway and eyesense does not function as 
doorway.
The "Atthasåliní " (II, Book II, Ch III, 316) states that "the senses 
are not mixed." They each have their own characteristic, function, 
manifestation and proximate cause, and through each of them the 
appropriate object is experienced. The earsense can only receive 
sound, not visible object or flavour. Hearing can only experience 
sound through the ear-door. We are not used to considering each 
doorway separately since we are inclined to think of a person who 
coordinates all experiences. We are inclined to forget that a citta 
arises because of conditions, experiences one object just for a 
moment, and then falls away immediately. In order to help people to 
have right understanding of realities, the Buddha spoke time and again 
about each of the six doorways separately. He told people to "guard" 
the doorways in being mindful, because on account of what is 
experienced through these doorways many kinds of defilements tend to 
arise. 
We read in the "Kindred Sayings" (IV, Saîåyatanavagga, Third Fifty, Ch 
3, § 127, Bhåradvåja) that King Udena asked the venerable Bhåradvåja 
what the cause was that young monks could practise the righteous life 
in its fulness and perfection. Bhåradvåja spoke about the advices the 
Buddha gave to them, such as seeing the foulness of the body, and 
guarding the six doors. We read that Bhåradvåja said:

... It has been said, Mahåråjah, by the Exalted One... : "Come, monks, 
do you abide watchful over the doors of the faculties. Seeing an 
object with the eye, be not misled by its outer view, nor by its 
lesser details. But since coveting and dejection, evil, unprofitable 
states, might overwhelm one who dwells with the faculty of the eye 
uncontrolled, do you apply yourselves to such control, set a guard 
over the faculty of the eye and attain control of it. Hearing a sound 
with the ear... with the nose smelling a scent... with the tongue 
tasting a savour... with the body contacting tangibles... with the 
mind cognizing mind-states... be you not misled by their outward 
appearance nor by their lesser details... attain control thereof".... 

We then read that King Udena praised the Buddha's words. He said about 
his own experiences:

I myself, master Bhåradvåja, whenever I enter my palace with body, 
speech and mind unguarded, with thought unsettled, with my faculties 
uncontrolled,- at such times lustful states overwhelm me. But 
whenever, master Bhåradvåja, I do so with body, speech and mind 
guarded, with thought settled, with my faculties controlled, at such 
times lustful states do not overwhelm me....

We read that King Udena took his refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and 
the Sangha. 
How can we avoid being misled by the outward appearance or by the 
details of phenomena? By understanding realities as they are when they 
appear, one at a time. The following sutta in the "Kindred 
Sayings"(IV, Saîåyatanavagga, Second Fifty, Ch 3, § 82, The World) 
reminds us not to cling to a "whole" but to be mindful of only one 
object at a time as it appears through one of the six doors:

Then a certain monk came to see the Exalted One.... Seated at one side 
that monk said to the Exalted One:
" `The world! The world!' is the saying, lord. How far, lord, does 
this saying go?"
" It crumbles away, monks. Therefore it is called `the world' [18]. What 
crumbles away? The eye... objects... eye-consciousness... 
eye-contact... that pleasant or unpleasant or neutral feeling that 
arises owing to eye-contact... tongue... body... mind... It crumbles 
away, monks. Therefore it is called `the world' ."

******
Questions

1. Can eyesense experience something?
2. Where is the bodysense?
3. Is eyesense all the time eye-door?
4. For which type of citta is eyesense eye-door as well as base
     (vatthu, physical place of origin)? 


********


Footnotes
1.See Introduction
2. In Påli: cakkhu pasåda rúpa
3. The earth element performs its function of sustaining, the water 
element of holding together, the fire element of maintaining or 
maturing, and the wind element of oscillation.
4. See also Dhammasangaùi § 597 and Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part 
I,                 Ch III, 312.
5. Dhammasangaùi § 597. Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 308.
6. There are four stages of enlightenment. The anågåmí or 
"non-returner" has reached the third stage. The arahat has reached the 
last stage.
7. Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 310.
8. See also "Dhammasangaùi § 601 and Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part I,  
Ch III, 312.
9.See Dhammasangaùi § 605, 609, 613, Visuddhimagga XIV, 39, 40, 41, 
Atthasåliní, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 312.  
10. See Visuddhimagga, XIV, footnote 56.
11.There are also planes of existence where there is only nåma, not 
rúpa. In such planes cittas do not need a physical base. 
12.  See Introduction. 
13. In Påli there is a word association of  loko, world, with lujjati, 
to crumble away. 

******
Chapter 4

Sense Objects

We are infatuated with all the objects which are experienced through 
the sense-doors. However, they are only rúpas that fall away 
immediately; we cannot possess them. Sometimes we experience pleasant 
objects and sometimes unpleasant objects. The experience of a pleasant 
object is the result of kusala kamma and the experience of an 
unpleasant object is the result of akusala kamma. 
The objects which can be experienced through the sense-doors are the 
following:
colour or visible object
sound
odour
flavour 
tangible object

As we have seen, three of the four Great Elements can be tangible 
object, namely: solidity (appearing as hardness or softness), 
temperature (appearing as heat or cold) and motion (appearing as 
motion, oscillation or pressure). The element of cohesion is not  
tangible object, it can be experienced only through the mind-door. 
Visible object, odour and flavour are included in the "eight 
inseparable rúpas" which always arise together. Although they arise 
together, only one kind of rúpa at a time can be the object which is 
experienced. When there are conditions for the experience, for 
example, of flavour, the flavour that impinges on the tastingsense is 
experienced by tasting-consciousness. Flavour arises together with the 
four Great Elements of solidity, temperature, cohesion and motion, and 
with visible object, odour and nutrition, but these are not 
experienced at that moment. 
Sound is the object of hearing-consciousness. Sound is not included in 
the eight inseparable rúpas, but when it arises it has to be 
accompanied by these rúpas that each perform their own function. 
Whenever there is sound, there also have to be solidity, cohesion, 
temperature, motion and the other inseparable rúpas. When sound is 
heard, the accompanying rúpas cannot be experienced 1.
We read in the "Dhammasangaùi" (§ 621) about different kinds of 
sounds, such as sound of drums and other musical instruments, sound of 
singing, noise of people, sound of concussion of matter, sound of wind 
or water, human sound, such as sound of people talking. The 
"Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 319), which gives a 
further explanation of these kinds of sounds, defines sound as follows 
2 : 

... all sounds have the characteristic of striking the ear, the 
function and property of being the object of auditory cognition, the 
manifestation of being the field or object of auditory cognition....

Like the other sense objects, sound has as its proximate cause the 
four Great Elements. No matter what sound we hear, it has a degree of 
loudness and it "strikes the ear". Its characteristic can be 
experienced without the need to think about it. We may hear the sound 
of a bird and it seems that we know at once the origin of the sound. 
When we know the origin of the sound it is not hearing, but thinking 
of a concept. However, the thinking is conditioned by the hearing. 
It seems that we can hear different sounds at a time, for example when 
a chord is played on the piano. When we recognize the different  notes 
of a chord it is not hearing but thinking. When there is awareness, 
one reality at a time can be known as it is. 
Sound can be produced by temperature or by citta. Sound of wind or 
sound of water is produced by temperature. Speech sound is produced by 
citta. 
We are inclined to find a loud noise disturbing and we may make 
ourselves believe that there cannot be mindfulness of realities when 
we hear a loud noise. We read in the "Theragåthå" (Psalms of the 
Brothers, Part VII, 62, Vajjiputta) about a monk of the Vajjian clan 
who was dwelling in a wood near Vesålí. The commentary to this 
verse      (Paramatthadípaní) states:

... Now a festival took place at Vesålí, and there was dancing, 
singing and reciting, all the people happily enjoying the festival. 
And the sound thereof distracted the bhikkhu, so that he quitted his 
solitude, gave up his exercise, and showed forth his disgust in this 
verse:
Each by himself we in the forest dwell,
Like logs rejected by the woodman's craft.
So flit the days one like another by,
Who more unlucky in their lot than we?
Now a woodland deva heard him, and had compassion on the bhikkhu, and 
thus upbraided him, "Even though you, bhikkhu, speak scornfully of 
forest life, the wise desiring solitude think much of it," and to show 
him the advantage of it spoke this verse:
Each by himself we in the forest dwell,
Like logs rejected by the woodman's craft.
And many a one does envy me my lot,
Even as the hell-bound envies him who fares to heaven.
Then the bhikkhu, stirred like a thoroughbred horse by the spur, went 
down into the avenue of insight, and striving soon won arahatship. 
Thereupon he thought, "The deva's verse has been my goad!" and he 
recited it himself.

By this Sutta we are reminded that aversion to noise is not helpful. 
Our most important task is being mindful of whatever reality presents 
itself. When sound appears correct understanding of this reality can 
be developed. It can be known as a kind of rúpa and it does not matter 
what kind of sound it is. We are infatuated with pleasant sense 
objects and disturbed by unpleasant ones. Like and dislike are 
realities of daily life and they can be objects of awareness. We often 
find reasons why we cannot be mindful of the present moment.
We would like to hear only pleasant things. When someone speaks 
unpleasant words to us we are inclined to think about it for a long 
time instead of being mindful of realities. We may forget that the 
moment of hearing is vipåkacitta, result produced by kamma. Nobody can 
change vipåka. Hearing falls away immediately. When we think with 
aversion about the meaning of the words that were spoken we accumulate 
unwholesomeness.
We read in the "Greater Discourse of the Elephant's Footprint" (Middle 
Length Sayings I, 28) that Såriputta spoke to the monks about the 
elements that are conditioned, impermanent and devoid of self. He also 
spoke about the hearing of unpleasant words:

... Your reverences, if others abuse, revile, annoy, vex this monk, he 
comprehends: "This painful feeling that has arisen in me is born of 
sensory impingement on the ear, it has a cause, not no cause. What is 
the cause? Sensory impingement is the cause." He sees that sensory 
impingement is impermanent, he sees that feeling... perception... the 
habitual tendencies (saòkhårakkhandha) are impermanent, he sees that 
consciousness is impermanent 3 . His mind rejoices, is pleased, 
composed, and is set on the objects of the element. If, your 
reverences, others comport themselves in undesirable, disagreeable, 
unpleasant ways towards that monk, and he receives blows from their 
hands and from clods of earth and from sticks and weapons, he 
comprehends thus: "This body is such that blows from hands affect it 
and blows from clods of earth affect it and blows from sticks affect 
it and blows from weapons affect it. But this was said by the Lord in 
the Parable of the Saw: `If, monks, low-down thieves should carve you 
limb from limb with a two-handled saw, whoever sets his heart at 
enmity, he, for this reason, is not a doer of my teaching.' Unsluggish 
energy shall come to be stirred up by me, unmuddled mindfulness set 
up, the body tranquillised, impassible, the mind composed and 
onepointed. Now, willingly, let blows from hands affect this body, let 
blows from clods of earth... from sticks... from weapons affect it, 
for this teaching of the Awakened Ones is being done."

 Do we see our experiences as elements to such a degree already that, 
when we hear unpleasant words, we can immediately realize: "This 
painful feeling that has arisen in me is born of sensory impingement 
on the ear"?  In order to see realities as they are it is necessary to 
develop understanding of nåma and rúpa. 
There are different ways of classifying rúpas. One way is the 
classification as the four Great Elements (mahå-bhúta rúpas) and the 
derived rúpas (upåda rúpas), which are the other twentyfour rúpas 
among the twentyeight rúpas.
Another way is the classification as gross rúpas (oîårika rúpas) and 
subtle rúpas (sukhuma rúpas). Twelve kinds of rúpa are gross; they are 
the sense-objects that can be experienced through the sense-doors, 
namely: visible object, sound, odour, flavour and the three rúpas that 
are tangible object, namely: solidity, temperature and motion, thus, 
three of the great Elements, and also the five sense-organs (pasåda 
rúpas) that can be the doors through which these objects are 
experienced. The other sixteen rúpas among the twentyeight kinds are 
subtle rúpas 4. 
The "Visuddhimagga" (XIV, 73) states that twelve rúpas "are to be 
taken as gross because of impinging; the rest is subtle because they 
are the opposite of that." The seven rúpas that can be sense objects 5 
are impinging time and again on the five rúpas which are the sense 
organs. Subtle rúpas do not impinge on the senses. According to the 
"Visuddhimagga", the subtle rúpas are far, because they are difficult 
to penetrate, whereas the gross rúpas are near, because they are easy 
to penetrate. 
There is impingement of objects on the senses time and again, but we 
are usually forgetful of realities. We have learnt about the four 
Great Elements and other rúpas and we may begin to notice different 
characteristics of realities when they present themselves. For 
example, when we are walking, rúpas such as hardness, heat or pressure 
may appear one at a time. We can learn the difference between the 
moments  characteristics of realities appear one at a time, and the 
moments we are thinking of concepts such as feet and ground. The 
ground cannot impinge on the bodysense and be directly experienced. 
The Buddha urged the monks to develop right understanding during all 
their actions. We read in the Commentary to the "Satipaììhåna Sutta" 6 
, in the section on the four kinds of Clear Comprehension, about clear 
comprehension in wearing robes:

... Within there is nothing called a soul that robes itself. According 
to the method of exposition adopted already, only, by the diffusion of 
the process of oscillation (the element of wind or motion) born of 
mental activity does the act of robing take place. The robe has no 
power to think and the body too has not that power. The robe is not 
aware of the fact that it is draping the body, and the body too of 
itself does not think: "I am being draped round with the robe." Mere 
processes clothe a process-heap, in the same way that a modelled 
figure is covered with a piece of cloth. Therefore, there is neither 
room for elation on getting a fine robe nor for depression on getting 
one that is not fine.

This passage is a good reminder of the truth, also for laypeople. We 
are used to the impact of cloths on the body, most of the time we do 
not even notice it. Or we are taken in by the pleasantness of soft 
material that touches the body, or by the colour of our cloths. We can 
be mindful of softness or colour as only elements. In reality there 
are only elements impinging on elements. 
We read in the "Gradual Sayings" (II, Book of the Fours, Ch XVIII, § 
7, Råhula) that the Buddha said to Råhula:

Råhula, both the internal earth-element and that in external objects 
are just this earth-element. Thus it should be regarded, as it really 
is, by perfect wisdom: "This is not of me. Not this am I. Not to me is 
this the self." So seeing it, as it really is, by perfect wisdom, one 
has revulsion for the earth-element; by wisdom one cleanses the heart 
of passion.

The same is said of the elements of water, heat and wind. The Buddha 
then said:

Now, Råhula, when a monk beholds neither the self nor what pertains to 
the self in these four elements, this one is called "a monk who has 
cut off craving, has loosed the bond, and by perfectly understanding 
(this) vain conceit, has made an end of Ill."

******




Questions

1. Which factors can produce sound?
2. When someone speaks, by which factor is sound produced?
3. Why are gross rúpas so called?
4. Which rúpas among the inseparable rúpas are gross?
5. Through which doorways can gross rúpas be known?

********
Footnotes
1. Because each citta can experience only one object at a time through 
the appropriate doorway.
2. See also Visuddhimagga XIV, 55. 
3. This sutta refers to the five khandhas. Conditioned nåmas and rúpas 
can be classified as five khandhas or aggregates: rúpakkhandha 
(comprising all rúpas), vedanåkkhandha or the khandha of feelings, 
saññåkkhandha, the khandha of perception or remembrance, s
aòkhårakkhandha, the khandha of "habitual tendencies" or "formations", 
including all cetasikas other than feeling and perception, 
viññåùakkhandha, including all cittas. 
4. As we see, of the eight inseparable rúpas six are gross, namely: 
three of the four Great Elements, visible object, odour and flavour, 
and two are subtle, namely: cohesion and nutrition. 
5. They are visible object, sound, odour, flavour and three tangible 
objects which are three among the Great Elements. 
6. In the Middle Length Sayings I, no 10. See the translation of the 
commentary to this sutta in "The Way of Mindfulness" by Ven. Soma, 
B.P.S. Kandy, 1975.   

******











Chapter 5

Subtle Rúpas produced by Kamma

The objects that can be experienced through the sense-doors and also 
the sense-organs themselves are gross rúpas, the other rúpas are 
subtle rúpas. The sense-organs are produced solely by kamma, not by 
the other three factors of citta, temperature and nutrition which can 
produce rúpas. There are also subtle rúpas which are produced solely 
by kamma. They are: the femininity-faculty, the masculinity-faculty, 
the life-faculty and the heart-base.
With regard to the femininity-faculty (itthindriyaÿ) and the 
masculinity-faculty (purisindriyaÿ), collectively called bhåvarúpa or 
sex, these are rúpas produced by kamma from the first moment of our 
life and throughout life. Thus, it is due to kamma whether one is born 
as a male or as a female. The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Part I, Ch 
III, 322) explains that birth as a male and birth as a female are 
different kinds of vipåka. Being born as a human being is kusala 
vipåka, but since good deeds have different degrees also their results 
have different degrees. Birth as a female is the result of kusala 
kamma of a lesser degree than the kusala kamma  that conditions birth 
as a male. In the course of life one can notice the difference between 
the status of men and that of women. It is a fact that in society 
generally men are esteemed higher than women. Usually women cannot so 
easily obtain a position of honour in society. But as regards the 
development of wisdom, both men and women can develop it and attain 
arahatship. We read in the "Kindred Sayings" (IV, Saîåyatana-vagga, 
Part III, Kindred Sayings about Womankind, 3, § 34, Growth):

Increasing in five growths, monks, the ariyan woman disciple increases 
in the ariyan growth, takes hold of the essential, takes hold of the 
better. What five?
She grows in confidence (saddhå), grows in virtue (síla), in learning, 
in generosity, in wisdom. Making such growth, monks, she takes hold of 
the essential, she takes hold of the better....

The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Ch III, 321) explains that women and 
men have different features, that they are different in outer 
appearance, in occupation and deportment. But the feminine features, 
etc. are not identical with the rúpa that is  the femininity faculty. 
The "Atthasåliní" states:

...They are produced in course of process because of that faculty. 
When there is seed the tree grows because of the seed, and is replete 
with branch and twig and stands filling the sky; so when there is the 
feminine controlling faculty called femininity, feminine features, 
etc. , come to be....

The same is said about the masculinity faculty. The "Atthasåliní" 
(same section, 322) gives the following definitions of the femininity 
faculty and the masculinity faculty:

Of these two controlling faculties the feminine has the characteristic 
of (knowing) the state of woman, the function of showing "this is 
woman", the manifestation which is the cause of femininity in feature, 
mark, occupation, deportment. 
The masculinity controlling faculty has the characteristic of 
(knowing) the state of man, the function of showing "this is man", the 
manifestation which is the cause of masculinity in feature, etc.1 . 

These two faculties which, as the Visuddhimagga (XIV, 58) explains, 
are "coextensive with" or pervade the whole body, are not known by 
visual cognition but only by mind-cognition. But, as the "Atthasåliní" 
(321) states, their characteristic features, etc., which are 
conditioned by their respective faculties, are known by visual 
cognition as well as by mind-cognition. 
Seeing experiences only visible object, it does not know "This is a 
woman" or "This is a man". The citta which recognizes feminine or 
masculine features does so through the mind-door, but this recognizing 
is conditioned by seeing. When the commentary states that these 
characteristic features are known by visual cognition as well as by 
mind-cognition, it does not speak in detail about the different 
processes of cittas experiencing objects through the eye-door and 
through the mind-door.
Generally, women like to emphasize their femininity in make up and 
clothes and men like to emphasize their masculinity. One clings to 
one's feminine or masculine features, one's way of walking and 
deportment. We should not forget that it is the femininity faculty or 
masculinity faculty, only a rúpa produced by kamma, which conditions 
our outward appearance or deportment to be specifically feminine or 
masculine. We take our sex for self, but it is only a conditioned 
element devoid of self.

Life faculty, the rúpa which is jívitindriya, is also a subtle rúpa 
produced by kamma from the first moment of life and throughout life 2 
. Since this kind of rúpa is produced solely by kamma, it arises only 
in living beings, not in plants 3. It is a "controlling faculty" 
(indriya), it has a dominating influence over the other rúpas it 
arises together with since it maintains their life. The 
"Visuddhimagga" (XIV, 59) states about life faculty 4 : 

The life faculty has the characteristic of maintaining conascent kinds 
of matter 5. Its function is to make them occur. It is manifested in 
the establishing of their presence. Its proximate cause is primary 
elements that are to be sustained.

Life faculty maintains the other rúpas it arises together with in one 
group, and then it falls away together with them. The "Visuddhimagga" 
(in the same section) states:

It does not prolong presence at the moment of dissolution because it 
is itself dissolving, like the flame of a lamp when the wick and the 
oil are getting used up....

We cling to our body as something alive. Rúpas of a "living body" have 
a quality lacking in dead matter or plants, they are supported by the 
life faculty. We are inclined to take this quality for "self", but it 
is only a rúpa produced by kamma.
The heart-base (hadayavatthu) is another rúpa produced solely by 
kamma. In the planes of existence where there are nåma and rúpa cittas 
have a physical place of origin, a base (vatthu). Seeing-consciousness 
has as its base the eye-base, the rúpa which is eyesense, and evenso 
have the other sense-cognitions their appropriate bases where they 
arise. Apart from the sense-bases there is another base: the 
heart-base. This is the place of origin for all cittas other than the 
sense-cognitions.
At the first moment of life the rebirth-consciousness 
(paìisandhi-citta) which arises is produced by kamma. If this citta 
arises in a plane of existence where there are nåma and rúpa it must 
have a base: this is the heart-base, which is produced by kamma. Kamma 
produces this rúpa from the first moment of life and throughout life.
The rúpa which is the heart-base has not been classified in the 
"Dhammasangaùi", but it is referred to in the "Book of Conditional 
Relations" ( Paììhåna), the Seventh Book of the Abhidhamma. In the 
section on "Dependance Condition" (Part II, Analytical Exposition of 
Conditions) it is said that dependant on the five sense-bases the five 
sense-cognitions arise, and dependant on "this matter" mind-element 
and mind-consciousness-element arise. "This matter" is the rúpa which 
is the heart-base and the mind-element and mind-consciousness-element 
comprise all cittas other than the five sense-cognitions 6. 
The "Visuddhimagga" (XIV, 60) gives the following definition of the 
heart-base 7: 

The heart-basis has the characteristic of being the (material) support 
for the mind-element and for the mind-consciousness-element. Its 
function is to observe them. It is manifested as the carrying of 
them....

The "Visuddhimagga" (VIII, 111,112) states that the heart-base is to 
be found on dependance on the blood, inside the heart. It is of no use 
to speculate where exactly the heart-base is. It is sufficient to know 
that there is a rúpa which is base for all cittas other than the 
sense-cognitions. We may not experience the heart-base, but if there 
would be no heart-base we could not think at this moment, we could not 
know which objects we are experiencing, we could not feel happy or 
unhappy. In the planes of existence where there are nåma and rúpa all 
cittas must have a physical base, they cannot arise outside the body. 
When we, for example, are angry, cittas rooted in aversion arise and 
these originate at the heart-base.
If we had not studied the Abhidhamma we would have thought that all 
cittas originate in what we call in conventional language "brain". One 
may cling to a concept of brain and take it for self. The Abhidhamma 
can clear up misunderstandings about bodily phenomena and mental 
phenomena and the way they function. It explains how physical 
phenomena and mental phenomena are interrelated. Mental phenomena are 
dependant on physical phenomena 8 and physical phenomena can have 
mental phenomena as conditioning factors.
The conditioning factors for what we call body and mind are 
impermanent. Why then do we take body and mind for something 
permanent? We read in the "Kindred Sayings" (III, Khandhå-vagga, 
Kindred Sayings on Elements, First Fifty, Ch 2, § 18, Cause) that the 
Buddha said to the monks at Såvatthí:

Body, monks is impermanent. That which is the cause, that which is the 
condition for the arising of body, that also is impermanent. How, 
monks, can a body which is compounded of the impermanent come to be 
permanent?....

The same is said about the mental phenomena (classified as four 
aggregates or khandhas). We then read:

Thus seeing, the welltaught ariyan disicple 9 is repelled by body, is 
repelled by feeling, by perception, by the "activities" 10. He is 
repelled by consciousness. Being repelled by it he lusts not for it: 
not lusting he is set free. Thus he realizes: "Rebirth is destroyed, 
lived is the righteous life, done is my task, for life in these 
conditions there is no here-after."

*********
Questions

1. Why can life faculty not arise in plants?
2. What is the base for citta rooted in aversion?
3. Does the brain have the function of base for cittas? 
4. What is the base for rebirth-consciousness in the human plane of
                                                                                
existence?
*******
Footnotes

1.  See also Dhammasangaùi § 633, 634 and Visuddhimagga XIV, 58.
2.  There is nåma-jívitindriya and rúpa-jívitindriya. 
Nåma-jívitindriya is a 
cetasika among the "universals", cetasikas which accompany every 
citta. 
3. Plants consist of rúpas produced by temperature or the element of 
heat.
4. See also Dhammasangaùi § 635. The Atthasåliní refers to its 
definition of nåma-jívitindriya (I, Part IV, Ch I, 123, 124).
5. The rúpas arising together with it. 
6. Mind- element are the five-sense-door adverting-consciousness and 
the two types of receiving-consciousness, which are kusala vipåka and 
akusala vipåka. Mind-consciousness-element are all cittas other than 
the sense-cognitions and mind-element.
7. The Atthasåliní does not classify the heart-base separately, but it 
mentions the "basis-decad", a group of ten rúpas including the 
heart-base ( Book II, Ch III, 316). As I shall explain later on, from 
the first moment of our life kamma produces three decads, groups of 
ten rúpas: the bodysense-decad, the sex-decad and the 
heart-base-decad. 
8. In the planes of existence where there are nåma and rúpa. 
9. An ariyan is a person who has attained enlightenment.
10. Cetasikas other than feeling and perception are classified as one 
khandha, that of the activities or formations, saòkhårakkhandha.   
       

******



Chapter 6.

Intimation through Body and Speech

Citta is one of the four factors that produces rúpa. We look different 
when we laugh, when we cry, when we are angry or when we are generous. 
Then we can notice that citta produces rúpa.
Bodily intimation (kåyaviññatti) and speech intimation (vacíviññatti) 
are two kinds of rúpa, originated by citta. They are not produced by 
the other three factors that can produce rúpa, by kamma, temperature 
or nutrition.
As to bodily intimation, this is movement of the body, of the limbs, 
facial movement or gestures which display our intentions, be they 
wholesome or unwholesome. The intention expressed through bodily 
intimation can be understood by others, even by animals. Bodily 
intimation itself is rúpa, it does not know anything. We read in the 
"Dhammasangaùi" (§ 636):

What is that rúpa which is bodily intimation (kåyaviññatti)? 
That tension, that intentness, that state of making the body tense, in 
response to a thought, whether good or bad, or indeterminate 
(kiriyacitta), on the part of one who advances, or recedes, or fixes 
the gaze, or glances around, or retracts an arm, or stretches it forth 
- the intimation, the making known, the state of having made known - 
this is that rúpa which constitutes bodily intimation.

According to the "Atthasåliní" (I, Book I, Part III, 82, 83), in the 
case of bodily intimation citta produces the "eight inseparable rúpas" 
1  and among them the element of air (wind, oscillation or motion) 
plays its specific part in supporting the body and strengthen the 
postures. We read:

... But there is a certain peculiar, unique mode of change in the 
primaries (four Great Elements) when set up by mind, through which, as 
a condition, mobility (the element of wind or motion) is able to 
strengthen, support and agitate the coexistent body. This is 
intimation. ... Because it is a capacity of communicating, it is 
called "intimation". What does it communicate? A certain wish 
communicable by an act of the body. If anyone stands in the path of 
the eye, raises his hands or feet, shakes his head or brow, the 
movement of his hands, etc. are visible. Intimation, however, is not 
so visible; it is only knowable by the mind. For one sees by the eye a 
colour-surface moving by virtue of the change of position in hands, 
etc. 2. But by reflecting on it as intimation, one knows it by 
mind-door-consciousness, thus: "I imagine that this man wishes me to 
do this or that act."...

The intention expressed through bodily intimation is intelligible to 
others, not through the eye-door but through the mind-door. Knowing, 
for example, that someone waves is cognition through the mind-door and 
this cognition is conditioned by seeing-consciousness that experiences 
visible object or colour. The meaning of what has been intimated is 
known after reflection on it, thus it can only be cognized through the 
mind-door. 
The "Visuddhimagga" (XIV, 61) defines intimation in a similar way and 
then states about its function, manifestation and proximate cause:

... Its function is to display intention. It is manifested as the 
cause of bodily excitement. Its proximate cause is the 
consciousness-originated air-element.

As to the proximate cause, as we have seen, the element of wind or air 
plays its specific role in the intimating of intention by bodily 
movement or gestures. 
We are inclined to take intimation as belonging to self, but bodily 
intimation is only a kind of rúpa, originated by citta. There is no 
person who communicates by gestures. Are we aware of nåma and rúpa 
when we gesticulate? Are there kusala cittas or akusala cittas at such 
moments? Most of the time there are akusala cittas, but we do not 
notice it. Do we realize which type of citta conditions the bodily 
intimation when we wave to someone else in order to greet him, when we 
gesticulate in order to tell him to come nearer, when we nod our head 
while we agree with something or shake it while we deny something? 
Such gestures are part of our daily routine and it seems that we make 
them automatically. Perhaps we never considered what types of citta 
condition them. Akusala citta conditions bodily intimation, for 
example, when we with mimics ridicule someone else or show our 
contempt for him. In such cases it is obvious that there is akusala 
citta. We should remember that bodily intimation is more often 
conditioned by akusala citta than by kusala citta. There may be subtle 
clinging that is not so obvious while we are expressing our intention 
by gestures. When there is mindfulness we can find out whether there 
is kusala citta or akusala citta. There may also be the performing of 
akusala kamma through bodily intimation, for example when someone 
gives by gesture orders to kill. There may be kusala cittas that 
condition bodily intimation when we, for example, stretch out our arms 
to welcome people to our home, when we stretch out our hand in order 
to give something, when we point out the way to someone who is in a 
strange city, when we by our gestures express courtesy or when we show 
respect to someone who deserves respect. However, there may also be 
selfish motives while we are doing so, or we may be insincere, and 
then there are akusala cittas that condition bodily intimation. More 
knowledge about citta and rúpas which are conditioned by citta can 
remind us to be aware of whatever reality appears, also while 
gesticulating. Then there is at such a moment no opportunity for 
akusala citta.
Our intentions are not only communicated by gestures, but also by 
speech. Speech intimation (vacíviññatti) is a kind of rúpa, originated 
by citta. The "Dhammasangaùi" ( Ch II, § 637) states: 

What is that rúpa which is intimation by language (vacíviññatti)?
That speech, voice, enunciation, utterance, noise, making noises, 
language as articulate speech, which expresses a thought whether good, 
bad, or indeterminate - this is called language. And that intimation, 
that making known, the state of having made known by language - this 
is that rúpa which constitutes intimation by language.

When someone's intention is intimated through speech it is then 
intelligible to others. The meaning of what is intimated is known 
after reflection about it, thus, it is cognizable through the 
mind-door. Speech intimation itself does not know anything, it is 
rúpa. 
The "Visuddhimagga" (XIV, 62) gives the following definition of speech 
intimation 3 :

Verbal intimation is the mode (conformation) and the alteration 
(deformation) in the consciousness-originated earth-element that 
causes that occurrence of speech utterance which mode and alteration 
are a condition for the knocking together of clung to matter 4 . Its 
function is to display intention. It is manifested as the cause of 
voice in speech. Its proximate cause is the consciousness-originated 
earth element....

The proximate cause of bodily intimation is the element of wind or 
motion which is produced by citta, whereas the proximate cause of 
speech intimation is the element of earth or solidity which is 
produced by citta. According to the "Atthasåliní" (I, Book I, Part 
III, Ch 2, 87), in the case of speech intimation, citta produces the 
eight inseparable rúpas and among these the element of earth or 
solidity (hardness) plays its specific role when there is impact 
producing sound. A "certain unique change" among the great elements 
produced by citta conditions the impact between the sound base, a rúpa 
produced by kamma (called clung to matter) and the element of solidity 
produced by citta. 
Bodily intimation and speech intimation are rúpas conditioned by 
citta, but these two kinds of rúpa are not rúpas with their own 
distinct nature and characteristic. Rúpas can be classified as sabhåva 
rúpas, rúpas with their own distinct nature (sa meaning: with, bhåva 
meaning: nature) and asabhåva rúpas, rúpas without their own distinct 
nature. The eight inseparable rúpas are sabhåva rúpas, they each have 
their own distinct nature and characteristic. As we have seen, bodily 
intimation and speech intimation are a "certain, unique change" in the 
great elements, they are a quality of rúpa, namely: changeability of 
rúpa. Thus, they are asabhåva rúpas. The eight inseparable rúpas on 
which the two kinds of intimation depend are produced by citta, 
according to the "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Part I, Ch 3, 337). In 
the case of bodily intimation the element of wind and in the case of 
speech intimation the element of earth plays its specific role. 
Do we realize whether speech intimation is conditioned by kusala citta 
or by akusala citta? We may know in theory that we speak with akusala 
citta when our objective is not wholesomeness, such as generosity, 
kindness or the development of understanding of the Buddha's 
teachings, but do we realize this at the moments we speak? Even when 
akusala kamma through speech, such as lying or slandering, is not 
committed, we may still speak with akusala citta. We may find out that 
often our speech is motivated by akusala citta. We speak with cittas 
rooted in attachment when we want to gain something, when we want to 
be liked or admired by others. With this objective we may even tell 
"tales" about others, ridicule or denigrate them. We are attached to 
speech and we often chatter just in order to keep the conversation 
going. We tend to feel lonely when there is silence. Usually we do not 
consider whether what we say is beneficial or not. We have to speak to 
others when we organize our work in the office or at home. Do we 
realize whether there are at such moments kusala cittas or akusala 
cittas? When we lie there is the committing of akusala kamma through 
speech. 
Speech intimation is produced by kusala citta when we, for example, 
with generosity and kindness try to help and encourage others in 
speaking to them. When we speak about the Buddha's teachings there may 
be kusala cittas, but at times there also tend to be akusala cittas, 
for example, when we are conceited about our knowledge, or when we are 
attached to the people we are speaking to. Many different types of 
citta arise and fall away very rapidly and we may not know when the 
citta is kusala citta and when akusala citta. There can be mindfulness 
while speaking, but we may believe that this is too difficult since we 
have to think of what we are going to say. Thinking is a reality and 
it can be object of mindfulness. There are sound and hearing and they 
can be object of mindfulness when they appear. We are usually absorbed 
in the subject we want to speak about and we attach great importance 
to our speech. We live most of the time in the world of "conventional 
truth", and we are forgetful of ultimate realities (paramattha 
dhammas). In the ultimate sense there is no speaker, only empty 
phenomena, conditioned nåmas and rúpas. 
When we gesticulate and speak there are only nåma and rúpa. Hardness, 
pressure, sound or hearing may present themselves, they can be 
experienced one at a time. If there is mindfulness at such moments 
understanding of the reality that appears can be developed. 
The "Visuddhimagga" (XVIII, 31) uses a simile of a marionette in order 
to illustrate that there is no being in the ultimate sense, only 
conditioned phenomena. We read:

Therefore, just as a marionette is void, soulless and without 
curiosity, and while it walks and stands merely through the 
combination of strings and wood, yet it seems as if it had curiosity 
and interestedness, so too, this mentality-materiality is void, s
oulless and without curiosity, and while it walks and stands merely 
through the combination of the two together, yet it seems as if it had 
curiosity and interestedness. This is how it should be regarded. Hence 
the Ancients said:
" The mental and material are really here,
" But here there is no human being to be found,
"For it is void and merely fashioned like a doll--
" Just suffering piled up like grass and sticks.

When one sees a performance with marionettes, it seems that the 
puppets have lives of their own: they exert themselves, they are 
absorbed, attached or full of hatred and sorrow, and one can laugh and 
cry because of the story that is being enacted. However, the puppets 
are only wood and strings, held by men who make them act. When one 
sees how the puppets are stored after the play they are not impressive 
anymore, only pieces of wood and strings. When we study the Abhidhamma 
it helps us to understand more that this marionette we call "self" can 
move about, act and speak because of the appropriate conditions.
As we have seen in the definitions of the two kinds of intimation by 
the `Dhammasangaùi" (§ 636, 637), these two kinds of rúpa can be 
conditioned by kusala citta, akusala citta or "inoperative" citta 
(kiriyacitta). When we realize that intimation through body and speech 
is very often conditioned by akusala citta, we come to see the danger 
of being forgetful of nåma and rúpa while we make gestures and speak. 
Then we are urged to remember the Buddha's words as to the practice of 
"clear comprehension" (sampajañña) in the "Satipaììhåna Sutta" (Middle 
Length Sayings no. 10, in the section on Mindfulness of the Body, 
dealing with the four kinds of clear comprehension 5 ) :

And further, o bhikkhus, a bhikkhu, in going forwards (and) in going 
backwards, is a person practising clear comprehension; in looking 
straight on (and) in looking away from the front, is a person 
practising clear comprehension; in bending and in stretching, is a 
person practising clear comprehension; in wearing the shoulder-cloak, 
the (other two) robes (and) the bowl, is a person practising clear 
comprehension; in regard to what is eaten, drunk, chewed and savoured, 
is a person practising clear comprehension; in defecating and in 
urinating, is a person practising clear comprehension; in walking, in 
standing (in a place), in sitting (in some position), in sleeping, in 
waking, in speaking and in keeping silence, is a person practising 
clear comprehension.

******
Questions
1. Can bodily intimation be the body-door through which a 
    good deed or an evil deed is being 
performed?                                                                                  
2. Through which door can what is being intimated by bodily
     movement be recognized?
3. When a conductor conducts an orchestra and he makes gestures
 in order to show the musicians how to play the music, which
 types of citta can produce the bodily intimation?
4. When one slanders, which type of rúpa is the door through
 which such action is being performed?
5. When we speak to others in order to organize our work, can
 speech be conditioned by akusala citta?


**********






Footnotes

1.The four Great Elements of solidity, cohesion, temperature and 
motion, and visible object, odour, flavour and nutrition. 
2. Because of saññå, remembrance, one can notice the movement of a 
colour surface. Seeing sees only colour, it cannot see movement of 
colour.  
 3. See Dhammasangaùi Ch II, 636, 637, and also Atthasåliní I, Book I, 
Part III, Ch 2, 86,87, and II, Book II, Part I, Ch 3, 324.
 4. According to the Commentary to the Visuddhimagga, the "Paramattha 
Mañjúså" (452): "The function (knocking together) of the vocal 
apparatus (clung to matter)". 
5.   See the translation in "The Way of Mindfulness" by Ven. Soma.

******
  


  

            
Chapter 7

Rúpas originating from different factors

The study of rúpas that are produced by kamma, citta, temperature or 
nutrition is beneficial for the understanding of our daily life. When 
we study the conditions for our experiences and bodily functions, we 
shall better understand that our life is only nåma and rúpa. This 
again reminds us to be aware so that realities can be known as they 
are. 
In this human plane of existence experiences through the senses arise 
time and again, such as seeing and hearing, and these could not occur 
without the body. The sense-cognitions have as their physical places 
of origin their appropriate sense-bases (vatthus) and these are 
produced by kamma throughout our life. All other cittas have as their 
physical base the heart-base (hadaya-vatthu) and this kind of rúpa is 
produced by kamma from the first moment of life. In the planes of 
existence where there are nåma and rúpa, citta needs a physical base, 
it could not arise without the body. The rúpa that is life-faculty 
(jívitindriya) is also produced by kamma from the first moment of 
life. Moreover, it is due to kamma whether we are born as a female or 
as a male. The rúpas that are the femininity-faculty (itthindriyaÿ) 
and the masculinity-faculty (purisindriyaÿ) have a great influence on 
our daily life. They condition our outward appearance, our behaviour, 
the way we walk, stand, sit or lie down, our voice, our occupation, 
our place and status in society. All these kinds of rúpa arise in 
groups, that always include the eight inseparable rúpas and also 
life-faculty. 
Some kinds of rúpa are produced solely by kamma, some are produced 
solely by citta, such as bodily intimation (kaya-viññatti) and 
speech-intimation (vací-viññatti). Some kinds of rúpa can be produced 
by kamma, citta, temperature or nutrition. The eight inseparable rúpas 
of solidity, cohesion, temperature, motion, colour, odour, flavour and 
nutrition can be produced by either one of the four factors. If kamma 
produces them, they always arise together with life-faculty, and in 
addition they can arise with other rúpas produced by kamma. Citta 
produces groups of the eight inseparable rúpas from the moment the 
bhavanga-citta (life-continuum) that succeeds the 
rebirth-consciousness arises. 
The following three kinds of rúpa are sometimes produced by citta, 
sometimes by temperature, sometimes by nutrition. They are:
buoyancy or lightness (lahutå)
plasticity (mudutå)
wieldiness (kammaññatå)

Because of lightness, our body is not heavy or sluggish. Because of 
plasticity it is pliable, it has elasticity and is not stiff. Because 
of wieldiness it has adaptability. For the movement of the body and 
the performance of its functions, these three qualities are essential. 
They arise in the bodies of living beings, not in dead matter. These 
three rúpas are rúpas without a distinct nature, asabhåva rúpas; they 
are qualities of rúpa, namely, changeability of rúpa (vikåra rúpas, 
vikåra meaning change) 1 . The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Part I, Ch 
III, 326) gives the following definitions of these three kinds of rúpa 
2 : 

... buoyancy of matter has non-sluggishness as its characteristic, 
removing the heaviness of material objects as its function, quickness 
of change as its manifestation, buoyant matter as its proximate cause.
Next "plasticity of matter" has non-rigidity as characteristic, 
removing the rigidity of material objects as function, absence of 
opposition in all acts due to its own plasticity as manifestation, 
plastic matter as proximate cause.
"Wieldiness of matter" has workableness suitable or favorable to 
bodily actions as characteristic, removal of non-workableness as 
function, non-weakness as manifestation, workable matter as proximate 
cause.

The "Atthasåliní" also states that these three qualities "do not 
abandon each other". When one of them arises, the others have to arise 
as well. They never arise without the eight inseparable rúpas. 
Although the qualities of lightness, plasticity and wieldiness arise 
together, they are different from each other. The "Atthasåliní" (in 
the same section) explains their differences. Buoyancy is 
non-sluggishness and it is like the quick movement of one free from 
ailment. Plasticity is plasticity of objects like well-pounded 
leather, and it is distinguished by tractability. Wieldiness  is 
wieldiness of objects like well-polished gold and it is distinguished 
by suitableness for all bodily actions. When one is sick there is 
disturbance of the elements of the body, and then the body is 
sluggish, stiff and without adaptability. We read in the 
"Visuddhimagga" (VIII, 28) about the disturbance of the elements:

... But with the disturbance of the earth element even a strong man's 
life can be terminated if his body becomes rigid, or with the 
disturbance of one of the elements beginning with water if his body 
becomes flaccid and putrifies with a flux of the bowels, etc., or if 
he is consumed by a bad fever, or if he suffers a severing of his 
limb-joint ligatures.

When one is healthy, there are conditions for lightness, plasticity 
and wieldiness of body. The "Atthasåliní" states that these three 
qualities are not produced by kamma, but that they are produced by 
citta, temperature or nutrition. This commentary states (in the same 
section, 327):

... Thus ascetics say, "Today we have agreeable food... today we have 
suitable weather... today our mind is one-pointed, our body is light, 
plastic and wieldy."

When we have suitable food and the temperature is right we may notice 
that we are healthy, that the body is not rigid and that it can move 
in a supple way. Not only food and temperature, also kusala citta can 
influence our physical condition. When we apply ourselves to mental 
development it can condition suppleness of the body. Thus we can 
verify in our daily life what is taught in the Abhidhamma. 
Lightness, plasticity and wieldiness condition our bodily movements to 
be supple. When we are speaking they condition the function of speech 
to be supple and "workable". Whenever we notice that there are bodily 
lightness, plasticity and wieldiness, we should remember that they are 
qualities of rúpa, conditioned by citta, temperature or nutrition.

Rúpas always arise in groups (kalapas) consisting of at least eight 
rúpas, the eight inseparable rúpas. There are rúpas other than these 
eight and these arise together in a group together with the eight 
inseparable rúpas. Our body consists of different groups of rúpas and 
each group is surrounded by infinitesimally tiny space, and this is 
the rúpa that is called space (akåsa) 3. The rúpas within a group are 
holding tightly together and cannot be divided, and the rúpa space 
allows the different groups to be distinct from each other. Thus, its 
function is separating or delimiting the different groups of rúpas, 
and therefore it is also called pariccheda rúpa, the rúpa that 
delimits (pariccheda meaning limit or boundary). The rúpa space is a 
rúpa without its own distinct nature (asabhåva rúpa), and it arises 
simultaneously with the different groups of rúpa it surrounds. 
The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 326) states that space 
is that which cannot be scratched, cut or broken. It is "untouched by 
the four great Elements." Space cannot be touched. The "Atthasåliní" 
gives the following definition of space 4 : 

... space-element has the characteristic of delimiting material 
objects, the function of showing their boundaries, the manifestation 
of showing their limits, state of being untouched by the four great 
elements and of being their holes and openings as manifestation, the 
separated objects as proximate cause. It is that of which in the 
separated groups we say "this is above, this is below, this is across."

Space delimits the groups of rúpa that are produced by kamma, citta, 
temperature and nutrition so that they are separated from each other. 
If there were no space in between the different groups of rúpa, these 
groups would all be connected, not distinct from each other. Space 
comes into being whenever the groups of rúpas are produced by any of 
the four factors and, thus, it is regarded as originating from these 
four factors. 
We read in the "Discourse on the Analysis of the Elements" (Middle 
Length Sayings III, no 140) that the Buddha explained to the monk 
Pukkusåti about the elements and that he also spoke about the element 
of space. This Sutta refers to the empty space of holes and openings 
that are, as we have read, the manifestation of space. We read:

... And what, monk, is the element of space? The element of space may 
be internal, it may be external. And what, monk, is the internal 
element of space? Whatever is space, spacious, is internal, referable 
to an individual and derived therefrom, such as the auditory and nasal 
orifices, the door of the mouth and that by which one swallows what is 
munched, drunk, eaten and tasted, and where this remains, and where it 
passes out (of the body) lower down, or whatever other thing is space, 
spacious, is internal, referable to an individual and derived 
therefrom, this, monk, is called the internal element of space. 
Whatever is an internal element of space and whatever is an external 
element of space, just these are the element of space. By means of 
perfect intuitive wisdom this should be seen as it really is thus: 
This is not mine, this am I not, this is not myself. Having seen this 
thus as it really is by means of perfect intuitive wisdom, he 
disregards the element of space, he cleanses his mind of the element 
of space.

The Sutta speaks in conventional terms of space of the auditory 
orifices and the other holes and openings of the body. Space in the 
ear is one of the conditions for hearing 5. We attach great importance 
to internal space and we take it for "mine" or self, but it is only a 
rúpa element.  

********


Questions

1. When we notice suppleness of the limbs, is this experienced 
    through the bodysense? 
2. Can suitable food, suitable weather and the citta which, for 
example, cultivates lovingkindness be conditions for lightness, 
plasticity and wieldiness of body?
3. Can these three qualities also be produced by kamma?
4. What is the function of space?

*****


Footnotes

1. As we have seen in Ch 6, the two rúpas of bodily intimation, kåya 
viññatti, and speech intimation, våci viññatti, are also qualities of 
rúpa that are changeability of rúpa, vikåra rúpas. In some texts 
bodily intimation and speech intimation are classified separately as 
the two rúpas of intimation, viññatti rúpas.
2. See also Dhammasangaùi § 639 - 641 and Visuddhimagga XIV, 64.
3. I used for the description of space Acharn Sujin's "Survey of 
Paramattha Dhammas", Ch 4.  
4.  See also Dhammasangaùi, § 638 and Visuddhimagga XIV, 63.
5.  Atthasåliní II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 314.

******















Chapter 8

Characteristics inherent in all Rúpas

There are four characteristics that are inherent in all rúpas. These 
four characteristics have been classified as different rúpas, the 
"lakkhaùa rúpas" (lakkhaùa means characteristic), and they are the 
following:

integration (upacaya)
continuity or subsistence (santati)
decay or ageing (jåra)
destruction or impermanence (aniccatå)

We do not notice that the rúpas of our body fall away and that time 
and again new rúpas are produced that fall away again. So long as we 
are alive kamma, citta, temperature and nutrition produce rúpas and 
thus our bodily functions can continue.
The "Atthasåliní" (II, Book II, Part I, Ch III, 327) states that 
integration and continuity are synonyms for the production of matter, 
but that these two terms are used so as to make clear the difference 
in the mode of the production of matter. There is the arising of 
groups of rúpas at the first moment of life, initial arising or 
"integration", and there is the subsequent arising of groups of rúpas, 
"continuity". Throughout our life there is continuity of the 
production of rúpa. When we read the definitions of integration and 
continuity, given by the "Atthasåliní" [19], the difference in the mode of 
production will be clearer. The text states:

... integration of matter has the characteristic of accumulation [20], the 
function of making material things arise at the beginning, leading 
them, or the fullness of matter as manifestation, integrated matter as 
proximate cause.
Continuity has the characteristic of continuous occurrence, the 
function of linking or binding without a break, unbroken series as 
manifestation, matter bound up without a break as proximate cause.

As we see, the function of integration (upacaya) is production of 
rúpas at the beginning of life, whereas the function of continuity 
(santati) is linking without a break. The seeming permanence of the 
body is merely due to the continuous production of new rúpas replacing 
the ones that have fallen away.
As regards decay, jåra, this is defined by the "Atthasåliní" (same 
section, 328) as follows [21]: 

... the decay of matter has the characteristic of maturity of matter; 
leading (to disruption) as function; the lacking of a fresh state 
(newness), though not devoid of its intrinsic nature (individual 
essence), as manifestation, like rotten paddy; the maturing matter as 
proximate cause.

The "Atthasåliní" explains terms used by the "Dhammasangaùi" in 
reference to decay, such as decrepitude, hoariness, wrinkles, the 
shrinkage in length of days, the overripeness of the faculties:

... By the word "decrepitude" is shown the function which is the 
reason for the broken state of teeth, nails, etc., in process of time. 
By hoariness is shown the function which is the reason for the 
greyness of hair on the head and body. By "wrinkles" is shown the 
function which is the reason for the wrinkled state in the skin making 
the flesh fade. Hence these three terms show the function of decay in 
process of time....

As to the terms "shrinkage in life and maturity of faculties", these 
show the resultant nature of this decay. We read:

... Because the life of a being who has reached decay shortens, 
therefore decay is said to be the shrinkage in life by a figure of 
speech. Moreover, the faculties, such as sight, etc., capable of 
easily seizing their own object, however subtle, and which are clear 
in youth, are mature in one who has attained to decay; they are 
disturbed, not distinct, and not capable of seizing their own object 
however gross....

When we notice decay of our teeth, wrinkles of the skin and greying of 
our hairs, decay is obvious. However, we should remember that each 
rúpa that arises is susceptible to decay, that it will fall away 
completely. 
As to impermanence, aniccatå, the "Atthasåliní", in the same section, 
states about it as follows [22] : 

... Fully defined, impermanence of matter has the characteristic of 
complete dissolution, the merging of matter as function, destruction 
and evanescence as manifestation, matter undergoing dissolution as 
proximate cause. 

As soon as rúpa has arisen, it is led onward to its termination and it 
breaks up completely, never to come back again. Remembering this is 
still theoretical knowledge of the truth of impermanence, different 
from right understanding that realizes the arising and falling away of 
a nåma or a rúpa. When understanding has not yet reached this stage 
one cannot imagine what it is like. One may tend to cling to ideas 
about the arising and falling away of phenomena but that is not the 
development of understanding. Nåma and rúpa have each different 
characteristics and so long as one still confuses nåma and rúpa, their 
arising and falling away cannot be realized. Understanding is 
developed in different stages and one cannot forego any stage. First 
there should be a precise understanding of nåma as nåma and of rúpa as 
rúpa so that the difference between these two kinds of realities can 
be clearly seen. It is only at a later stage in the development of 
understanding that the arising and falling away of nåma and rúpa can b
e directly known. 
The "Atthasåliní" (in the same section) compares birth, decay and 
death to three enemies, of whom the first leads someone into the 
forest, the second throws him down and the third cuts off his head. We 
read:

... For birth is like the enemy who draws him to enter the forest; 
because he has come to birth in this or that place. Decay is like the 
enemy who strikes and fells him to earth when he has reached the 
forest, because the aggregates (khandhas) produced are weak, dependent 
on others, lying down on a couch. Death is like the enemy who with a 
sword cuts off the head of him when he is fallen to the ground, 
because the aggregates having attained to decay, are come to 
destruction of life.

This simile reminds us of the disadvantages of all conditioned 
realities that do not last and are therefore no refuge. However, when 
understanding (paññå) has not realized the arising and falling away of 
nåma and rúpa, one does not grasp their danger. 
We read in the "Díghanakhasutta" (Middle Length Sayings II, no. 74) 
that the Buddha reminded Díghanakha that the body is susceptible to 
decay, impermanent and not self:

But this body, Aggivessana, which has material shape, is made up of 
the four great elements, originating from mother and father, nourished 
on gruel and sour milk, of a nature to be constantly rubbed away, 
pounded away, broken up and scattered, should be regarded as 
impermanent, suffering, as a disease, an imposthume, a dart, a 
misfortune, an affliction, as other, as decay, empty, not-self. When 
he regards this body as impermanent, suffering, as a disease, an 
imposthume, a dart, a misfortune, an affliction, as other, as decay, 
empty, not-self, whatever in regard to body is desire for body, 
affection for body, subordination to body, this is got rid of.

Integration, continuity, decay and destruction are characteristics 
inherent in all rúpas, they do not have their own distinct nature, 
thus, they are asabhåva rúpas. They are not produced by the four 
factors of kamma, citta, food and temperature. The "Visuddhimagga" 
(XIV, 79) explains:

...But "rúpa as characteristic" is called not born of anything. Why? 
because there is no arising of arising, and the other two are the mere 
maturing and breaking up of what has arisen...

Rúpas have been classified as twentyeight kinds. Summarizing them,  
they are:

solidity (or extension)
cohesion
temperature
motion
eyesense
earsense
nose (smellingsense)
tongue (tastingsense)
bodysense
visible object
sound
odour
flavour
femininity
masculinity
heart-base
life faculty
nutrition
space
bodily intimation
speech intimation
lightness
plasticity
wieldiness
birth or integration
continuity
decay
impermanence

Rúpas can be classified as the four Principle Rúpas and the twentyfour 
derived rúpas. The four Principle rúpas, mahå-bhúta rúpas, are the 
four Great Elements. The derived rúpas, upådå rúpas, are the other 
twentyfour rúpas that arise in dependence upon the four Great 
Elements. 
Rúpas can be classified as gross and subtle. As we have seen (in 
Chapter 4), twelve kinds of rúpa are gross: visible object, sound, 
odour, flavour and the three great elements which are tangible object 
(excluding cohesion), as well as the five sense-organs. They are gross 
because of impinging; visible object impinges on the eyesense, sound 
impinges on the earsense, and each of the other sense objects impinges 
on the appropriate sense-base. The other sixteen kinds of rúpa are 
subtle. What is subtle is called "far" because it is difficult to 
penetrate, whereas what is gross is called "near", because it is easy 
to penetrate (Vis. XIV, 73).
Furthermore, other distinctions can be made. Rúpas can be classified 
as sabhava rúpas, rúpas with their own distinct nature, and asabhava 
rúpas, rúpas without their own distinct nature. The twelve gross rúpas 
and six among the subtle rúpas that are: cohesion, nutrition, life 
faculty, heart-base, femininity and masculinity are rupas each with 
their own distinct nature and characteristic, they are sabhåva rúpas. 
The other ten subtle rúpas do not have their own distinct nature, they 
are asabhåva rúpas. Among these are the two kinds of intimation, 
bodily intimation and speech intimation, which are a "certain, unique 
change" in the eight inseparable rúpas produced by citta. Moreover, 
the three qualities of lightness, plasticity and wieldiness that can 
be classified together with the two rúpas of intimation as vikåra 
rúpas (rúpa as changeability or alteration). Furthermore, there is the 
rúpa space (akåsa or pariccheda rúpa) that delimits the groups of 
rúpa. Also included are the four rúpas that are characteristics of 
rúpa, nam