Preface

This book was written in Thailand where I lived for some years. When I got to know the Thai people, I was impressed by their generosity. In Thailand one meets many people who do not set a limit to their generosity, be they rich or poor, and one is inspired to be more generous oneself. When one meets the Thais one notices their sincerity, their tolerance and their wise attitude towards the problems of life. I was also impressed by the earnestness and dedication of the monks who lead a life of simplicity, ``contented with little'', and who try to realize the Buddhist teachings in their daily lives. When I visited the temples in Thailand, I saw Buddhism being lived in daily life.
And so, I wanted to study Buddhism. We are inclined to think that Buddhism is only a religion for people living in an oriental culture, but when we learn more about it, we see that it is completely different from what we first thought. We learn that it is in fact a ``way of life'' which makes for the well-being and happiness of all people, no matter what their nationality.
Through the study of the Buddha's teachings, which are also called the ``Dhamma'', we learn to develop the wisdom which leads to detachment from the ``self'' and finally to the eradication of greed, hatred and ignorance. When there is less attachment in our life, there is more room for unselfish loving kindness (mettå) and compassion (karuųå) for all living beings. 
The way one has to follow in order to develop this wisdom is the ``eightfold Path''. Through the development of the eightfold Path we come to know better the phenomena within and around ourselves; these phenomena can be experienced through the six doorways of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body-sense and mind. They are continually susceptible to change and they are impermanent. What we take for ``I'' or ``self`` all the time does not exist; there are only phenomena which arise and fall away again.
In Thailand I experienced that ``to reside in a suitable location is the greatest blessing'' (Mahå-Mangala Sutta). Thailand was the country where I met the ``wise person'' who helped me to understand the Buddhist teachings and who showed me the way to develop the eightfold Path. It is a great blessing to live in a country where Buddhism is taught and practised so that one can acquire not only theoretical knowledge of Buddhism, but also the way leading to the realization of the Buddha's teachings in daily life. 
The Buddha, who attained enlightenment and who had clear comprehension of everything which is real, left us his teachings which are now in the form of the Tipiėaka (three ``baskets''), the three parts of the Buddhist scriptures, consisting of the Vinaya, the Book of Discipline for the monks, the Suttanta, Discourses, and the Abhidhamma, the ``higher teachings'' or exposition of realities in detail. The Buddhist teachings themselves should be our guide in the practice. Some people want to apply themselves to ``meditation'' immediately without first studying the teachings and thus they do not know which result their way of mental development will bring. The Buddhist teachings are so subtle; one needs to study them thoroughly and to consider them carefully in order to understand what the Buddha taught about mental development. Mental development includes both the development of calm (samatha) and the development of insight (vipassanå), but they each have a different way of practice and a different result. If one does not follow the Buddha's way, but follows rather one's own or someone else's way, one cannot reach the goal.
In this book I do not pretend to give a complete outline of the Buddha's teachings. My purpose is to draw the reader to the Buddhist scriptures themselves and to the practice in accordance with the teachings. I want to ask the reader to read this book with discrimination and to investigate for himself or herself what the Buddhist scriptures say. By our own practice we can prove whether the way we follow is the right one for the goal we have chosen. If we intend to develop insight, vipassanå, the result should be that we gain more understanding of the realities which appear at the present moment through the five senses and the mind, and less clinging to the concept of ``self''. In the final analysis, the reader will have to find out for himself and to decide for himself about the path he wants to follow in his life.
I feel deep gratitude to Miss Sujin Boriharnwanaket who helped me to understand the Buddhist teachings and who showed me the way to develop vipassanå in daily life. The writing of this book would not have been possible without her help and valuable advice. 
Buddhism in Daily Life originated from a compilation of lectures for a Buddhist radio programme in English which were printed and reprinted in Thailand several times. Formerly this book was printed in two volumes with the titles Buddhist Outlook on Daily Life (now Part I) and Mental Development in Daily Life (now Part II). Jonathan Abbot and Susie Whitmore were of great assistance in preparing the text of these two volumes. This present edition has been reprinted in England after there were some requests from English people. I want to acknowledge my appreciation to the ``Dhamma Study and Propagation Foundation''; to the sponsors of the printing of this edition, Asoka Jayasundera and family, Anura Perrera and family and Laksham Perera and family; and to the publisher Alan Weller. Thanks to their assistance the reprinting of this book has been made possible. I wrote Buddhism in Daily Life a long time ago and I have since written Abhidhamma in Daily Life, The World in the Buddhist Sense, and The Buddha's Path. The last book gives a more complete outline of the Buddha's teachings for people in Western countries who may not have had an opportunity to study Buddhism and who may find it difficult to grasp the core of the teachings. Buddhism in Daily Life reflects my own experiences when I first came into contact with Buddhism in Thailand and became deeply impressed by the Buddha's teachings. 
For the quotations from the Buddhist scriptures, I have used mostly the English translation of the Pali Text Society. For the quotations from the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), I have used the translation by Bhikkhu Ņåųamoli (Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1964). The Path of Purification is an Encyclopedia on Buddhism which is a compilation of ancient commentarial material arranged by the commentator Buddhaghosa in the fifth century A.D. 
The chapters which I wrote in the form of question and answer were inspired by real questions posed by people who were confronted with many problems in the practice of vipassanå. They were posed by myself as well. I found from my own experience that the practice of vipassanå is very subtle; that the clinging to the notion of ``self'' and the desire for results can easily lead us astray, that they can cause us to follow the wrong path instead of the right path. 
When I wrote Buddhism in Daily Life I thought of the many people who want to know the truth about themselves. I find Dhamma the greatest blessing in life and I want to share with others what I learnt from the Buddhist teachings and from the practice of the Dhamma in daily life. I hope that this book can help others to find the Path that leads to real peace.

May the Dhamma be the greatest blessing in our lives, 

				Nina van Gorkom



Chapter 1


General Aspects of Buddhism

Questioner: What led you to the study of the Buddha's teachings?
Nina: When I first came to Thailand I was naturally interested in knowing more about the Thai people. I wanted to learn more about their customs and their way of thinking. I found the study of Buddhism essential for the understanding of the Thai culture because the spiritual background of the Thai people is Buddhism.
Therefore I started to study Buddhism and the more I studied, the more I found my interest growing. When one is in Thailand one should take the opportunity to study Buddhism and to try to understand the practice of Buddhism as well. Deep understanding will not come from books alone. Understanding is developed above all by the practice, by the application of the Buddhist teachings in daily life!
Question: Would you tell me what you mean by the practice of Buddhism in daily life?
Nina: One is first confronted with the practice of Buddhism when one sees different customs of the Thais, such as giving food to the monks, paying respect to the Buddha image or reciting the ``precepts'' on special occasions such as ``Uposatha Day''. 
In the beginning I thought that these customs were mixed with many things which are not essential for the practice of Buddhism. For example, I did not see how the presenting of eggs to the statue of the ``Emerald Buddha'' could have anything to do with the practice of Buddhism. However, even such popular beliefs can teach us something about the practice of Buddhism.
There are many levels of understanding the Buddha's teachings. The people who present eggs to the statue of the Buddha express their confidence in him. This is a wholesome act which will bear its fruit accordingly. However, the people who present the eggs may not realize that it is their respect to the Buddha which will bring them a good result and not the eggs presented to him. They may not clearly see which cause will bring them which result. They would receive greater benefit from their act of paying respect to the Buddha if this were done in a more meaningful way. They could, for example, pay respect to the Buddha by abstaining from ill deeds, in serving other people, in learning more about the teachings of the Buddha and in helping other people to understand the teachings as well. 
Question: Could you tell me more about the different degrees of understanding the Buddha's teaching?
Nina: As regards paying respect to the Buddha image, people who have a higher level of understanding know that the Buddha has passed away completely. When one has studied the teachings more deeply and when one has tried to verify them in daily life, one understands that, although the Buddha has passed away, it still makes sense to pay respect to him. It is the wholesome mental state of the person who pays respect to the Buddha or who offers something to him which will bring its result accordingly. Every good action brings a good result to the person who performs it. One reaps what one has sown. 
The person who pays respect to the Buddha with the right understanding does not have a confused idea of a Buddha in heaven who could see him or hear him. The image of the Buddha reminds him of the virtues of the Buddha. He thinks of the wisdom of the Buddha who found the Path to complete freedom from sorrow all by himself and who was able to help other people as well to find this Path. He thinks of the purity of the Buddha, of the purity in all his deeds, his speech and his thoughts. He thinks of the compassion of the Buddha, who taught out of compassion for everybody.
Question: What is the meaning of giving food to the monks?
Nina: As regards the giving of food to the monks, some people doubt whether that is of any use. They are inclined to think that monks want to have an easy life and that they do not have to work at all, but they forget that the real meaning of being a monk is seeking the truth.
A monk's life is a hard life, he does not have a family life, he cannot choose his own food and he does not take part in any entertainment such as going to the movies or football matches. He renounces the luxuries of a home, entertainment, choice of clothing and food, in order to seek the truth and to help other people to find the truth as well.
When people give food to the monks their act is one which will be fruitful for both parties. The giver will benefit from his act because he has a wholesome mental state at the time of giving: when there is generosity there is no greed or attachment. The receiver will benefit from the act of the giver because he is encouraged to study and practise the Buddhist teachings more earnestly and to help other people to know the teachings as well. He knows that the food he receives puts him under an obligation to be worthy of the gift, to work for the spiritual welfare of the whole world. Monks are continually reminded of their responsibility as monks, and twice a month they recite the rules of ``Påėimokkha'' in which their obligations are summed up. Furthermore, when the receiver is aware of the wholesome state of the giver, he will rejoice in the good deeds of the giver and thus he will have a wholesome mental state as well; he will be inspired by the generosity of the giver.
Question: Do you not find it difficult to think in terms of ``mental states''? Thinking of one's own mental state might seem an egocentric attitude.
Nina: Thinking of one's own mental states is very realistic, because it is the different mental states which make us act in this way or that. Only if we study our mental states and the many factors which cause them to be like this or that, will we be able to understand the deepest motives of our behaviour. We have to start by being aware of our own mental states. This is not egocentric, because we have to understand ourselves first, before we can understand other people. 
Through the study of the Abhidhamma one can begin to have more understanding of one's own mental states. The Abhidhamma is that part of the Buddhist teachings which analyses the different states of mind and which explains in detail about everything which is real. The study of the Abhidhamma helps us to understand which causes bring which effects in our life and in the lives of other people.

Question: Do you find that you can verify the Abhidhamma in your daily life?
Nina: It was a great discovery for me to find that the Abhidhamma can be verified in daily life, although one can in the beginning experience only part of the realities the Abhidhamma explains.
At first one might think that the Abhidhamma is too subtle and one might doubt whether it is useful to study the many different degrees of ignorance and wisdom, but one learns that each of these different degrees brings its corresponding result.
In studying the Abhidhamma one learns to understand more about other people as well. One learns that people are different because of different accumulations of experiences in the past. Because of these different accumulations people behave differently. At each moment one accumulates new experiences and this conditions what one will be like and what one will experience in the future. 
When we understand more about the different accumulations of different people, we are less inclined to judge other people. When we see people paying respect to the Buddha with apparently very little understanding we know that their accumulations are thus and that they are performing a wholesome act according to their ability.
Question: Do you think that a person with very little understanding can ever reach a level of higher understanding? In other words, when one's accumulations have conditioned one's character, is there anything that can be done about it? Is it possible to improve one's degree of understanding?
Nina: Everything can be done about it: wisdom can be developed very gradually and thus one's accumulations can be changed. Those who have a higher level of understanding can and should help other people to develop a higher level of understanding as well.
I shall give an example. Children can become novices. They share the life of the monks in order to learn more about the Buddhist teachings and to make merit for their parents who can rejoice in their good deeds. Many people think that the person who makes merit can literally transfer his own good deeds to other people, dead or alive. This is not the right understanding. It is not possible to transfer merit to other people, because everyone will receive the result of his own deeds. Older monks who have reached a higher level of understanding can help the novices to have more understanding about the wholesome act they are performing. If they could understand correctly the meaning of the merit they make, their renunciation would be even more fruitful. The novices are performing a very wholesome act in renouncing the company of their relatives in order to study the Buddhist teachings and to train themselves in the precepts, which are moral rules. This gives them a good spiritual foundation for their whole life. They will receive the fruit of this wholesome act themselves. The merit they make cannot literally be transferred to other people. However, other people, no matter whether they are deceased or still alive, can have wholesome states of mind inspired by the good deeds of someone else. Their own wholesome mental states will bring them a wholesome result. So parents, even deceased parents, if they are in planes of existence where they can rejoice in the good deeds of their child, may have wholesome states of mind and these will bring wholesome results in the future. The expression ``transfer of merit'' is a misleading one, because it does not give us the understanding of the real cause and effect.
Question: You used the expression ``mental state''. Could you explain what it means? I would like to ask you in general whether you find the English language adequate to render the real meaning of the realities which are described in the Abhidhamma.
Nina: The English language is not adequate to render the meaning of the realities described in the Abhidhamma. The ``Three Collections'' of the teachings (Tipiėaka) use Påli terms, and therefore it is better to learn the Påli terms and their meaning. For instance, the word ``mental state'' which is a translation of the Påli term ``citta'', is misleading. ``State'' implies something which stays for some time, be it short or long. However, each mental state or citta falls away immediately, as soon as it has arisen, to be succeeded by the next citta. This happens more rapidly than a lightning flash. The different cittas succeed one another so rapidly that it seems that there is only one citta. That is the reason why people take a citta for ``self''. 
For the same reason the word ``mind'' gives us a wrong idea of reality. We often hear the expression ``mastering one's mind'' or ``controlling one's mind''. Many people think that the mind is something static which can be grasped and controlled. There are many different cittas, none of which can be considered as ``self'' or as belonging to a ``self''.
In the Lesser Discourse to Saccaka (Middle Length Sayings I, no. 35) we read that the Buddha asked Saccaka whether he could be master of his body or of his mind, just as a king rules over his subjects. The Buddha asked: ``When you speak thus: `The body is myself,' have you power over this body of yours (and can you say), `Let my body be thus, let my body be not thus'?'' The Buddha asked the same question about the mind. Saccaka who was at first silent finally had to agree that it was not possible. 
In daily life we can find out that the Buddha spoke the truth. If we were masters of our body we would not grow older, there would not be sickness and we would not die. However, old age, sickness and death are unavoidable.
Neither can we be masters of our mind; the mental states which arise are beyond control. Like and dislike are beyond control, they arise when there are conditions. When we eat food which is prepared to our taste, we cannot help liking it. If someone insults us, we cannot help feeling aversion; we may reason later and try to understand the other person, but we cannot help feeling aversion at first. Like, dislike, and even reasoning about our likes and dislikes, are not ``self'', they are different mental states which arise when there are the right conditions. 
We all are inclined to take mental states for ``self''; for example, when we enjoy something we take our enjoyment for ``self''. However, the next moment there could be aversion, and we might wonder where the enjoyment which we took for ``self'' has gone. 
It is very human to like the idea of a ``self'' and to hold on to it. The Buddha knew this and therefore, after his enlightenment, he felt for a moment inclined not to teach other people the Path he had found. However, the Buddha knew also that people have different levels of understanding. We read in the Kindred Sayings (I, Ch. VI, The Brahmå Suttas, Ch. 1, §1, The Entreaty) that the Buddha surveyed the world with his ``Buddha-vision'' and saw people with different levels of understanding, some of whom would be able to understand his teaching:
As in a pool of blue or red or white lotus, some lotus plants born in the water, emerge not, but grow up and thrive sunken beneath the surface; and other lotus plants, born in the water and growing up in the water rise to the surface; and other lotus plants, born in the water and growing up in the water, stand thrusting themselves above the water and are unwetted by it; even so did the Exalted One look down over the world with a Buddha's Eye and see beings whose eyes were scarcely dimmed by dust, beings whose eyes were sorely dimmed by dust, beings sharp of sense and blunted of sense, beings of good and beings of evil disposition, beings docile and beings indocile, some among them living with a perception of the danger of other worlds and of wrong doing.

Therefore the Buddha decided to make known the Path he had discovered.
Question: People have different accumulations. They are conditioned in many ways. We have used the word ``condition'' several times already. Could you explain the meaning of this term?
Nina: I will give an example from daily life. My husband comes home from his office, feeling tired and somewhat irritated. I tell him something amusing which has happened and he laughs and feels happy again. Thus one can notice that there are different cittas, and that each citta has its own conditions. The amount of work at the office is a condition for my husband's tiredness and irritation. Afterwards there is another condition which makes him feel happy again.
Cittas are conditioned and each citta accumulates a new experience, which will condition cittas in the future. Everybody accumulates different tastes, abilities, likes and dislikes. One cannot always know the conditions which make people behave in this or in that way, but sometimes it is possible to know. For instance, people are addicted to different things, some of which are very harmful, others less so. One's education and the surroundings in which one is living can be a condition for these addictions. In some countries or regions it is the custom to drink an enormous amount of coffee the whole day and people even give coffee to very small children. Thus one acquires the taste for coffee from one's youth. As regards attachment to alcoholic drinks, there must be a condition for that as well. One starts with a little drink every day and gradually one's attachment increases.
Everybody should find out for himself how much attachment he accumulates and whether this brings him happiness or sorrow.
Question: There is not anything which one can control. Even each citta which arises because of conditions falls away immediately, to be succeeded by the next citta. It seems as if the situation is hopeless. Could you tell me whether something can be done to walk the right way in life?
Nina: The situation is not hopeless. Wisdom, the understanding of reality, can condition one to have more wholesome mental states and to do good deeds.
There is no ``self'' who can suppress one's bad inclinations; there is no ``self'' who can force one to do good deeds. Everybody can verify this in daily life. For example, if we tell ourselves: ``today I will be very kind to everybody'', can we prevent ourselves from suddenly saying an unkind word? Most of the time it has happened before we realize it.
If we are able to suppress our anger for a while we are inclined to think that there is a ``self'' who can suppress anger. In reality there are at that moment cittas which are not conditioned by anger, but which arise from other conditions. Afterwards there will be anger again because anger is not really eradicated by suppression. Only wisdom, seeing things as they are, can very gradually eradicate everything which is unwholesome in us.
We can develop this wisdom step by step. Even wisdom is not ``self''; it can only arise when there are the right conditions. We can develop wisdom by knowing through direct experience the mental phenomena and physical phenomena in and around ourselves. When we have realized that none of these mental and physical phenomena stays or is permanent, we will understand that we cannot take any phenomenon for ``self''. 
The Buddha explained to his disciples that it is ``comprehending'', seeing things as they are, which will eradicate unwholesomeness. When we are still learning to develop wisdom and when we notice that we have unwholesome cittas, we are troubled about it, we have aversion because of it. He whose wisdom is developed, has right understanding of his life. He knows that there is no ``self'', and that everything arises because of conditions. Thus he is not troubled, he is simply aware of the present moment.
The word ``comprehending'' is used in the suttas many times. This should help us to see that we do not have to perform extraordinary deeds; we should learn to be aware of the present moment in order to see things as they are. Of course wisdom cannot be fully developed in one day. For a long time we have been used to the idea of ``self''. In conventional language we have to use the words ``I'' and ``self'' continually in order to make ourselves understood.
Question: So wisdom is wholesome, and not understanding things as they are is unwholesome and brings unhappiness. Do you find that you can verify this in daily life?
Nina: Yes. I will give an example. We are constantly taking our body for ``self'', although we know that it does not last. Thus, when we suffer from sickness or pain, or when we become old, we attach so much importance to these facts that we feel quite oppressed by them. If one of our sense-organs does not function or if we become an invalid, we feel we are the most unhappy person in the world. Attachment to our body only brings sorrow, whereas if we would see things as they are, there would be less sorrow for us. 
If one wants to see the body as it really is, one should distinguish the body from mentality. It is true that in this world body and mentality condition each other. However, one should know the different characteristics of each, so that they can be experienced as they are.
The same elements which constitute dead matter constitute the body as well. Both dead matter and the body are composed of the element of earth or solidity, the element of water or cohesion, the element of fire or temperature and the element of wind or motion. One is inclined to think: ``Is there not a soul which makes the body alive and is the body therefore not different from dead matter?'' There is no soul; there are only physical phenomena and mental phenomena which arise and fall away all the time. We are not used to distinguishing the body from the mind and analysing them as to what they really are. However, this is necessary if we want to know reality. 
The body itself does not know anything; in this respect it is the same as dead matter. If we can see that the body is only a composition of physical phenomena which arise and fall away completely, and not ``self'', and that the mind is a series of mental phenomena which arise and fall away and not ``self'', the veil of ignorance will fall from our eyes.
If we try to develop this understanding we can see for ourselves what the result is. We can find out whether this understanding brings us more freedom from attachment or not. Attachment brings sorrow.
The Buddha taught people to see things as they are. We do not have to fast or to be an ascetic. It is our duty to look after the body and to feed it. The Buddha taught the ``Middle Way'': one does not have to force oneself to undertake difficult practices, but on the other hand one should learn through right understanding to become detached from the things in an around oneself. Just understanding, seeing things as they are, that is the ``Middle Way''. 
Question: So, seeing things as they are is the practice of vipassanå, insight. Most people think that it is a complicated form of meditation which can be learnt only in a meditation centre. That is the reason why most people will not even try it. But from our conversation it appears that vipassanå is seeing the things of our daily life as they are. Do you find that one has to have much theoretical knowledge before one starts the practice of vipassanå?
Nina: The word ``meditation'' frightens many people; they think that it must be very complicated. But in reality one does not have to do anything special. If one wants to develop vipassanå one needs some theoretical knowledge. One does not have to know about all physical elements and mental elements in detail, but one should know that the body is made up of physical elements and that these are different from mental elements. There are many different physical elements and these elements are continually changing. One should know that there are many different mental elements: one citta arises and falls away, then the next citta arises and falls away. Cittas arise and fall away successively, one at a time. Seeing is one citta, hearing is another citta, thinking is again another citta, they are all different cittas.
Developing vipassanå does not mean that one has to be aware of all those different elements at each moment; that would not be possible. Nor does one have to do anything special; one can perform all the activities of one's daily life. One gradually begins to understand that there are only physical phenomena and mental phenomena and one begins to be aware of these phenomena quite naturally, without having to force oneself, because they are there all the time.
When we understand that these phenomena can be known as they are only through direct awareness of them, awareness will arise by itself little by little. We will experience that awareness will arise when there are the right conditions. It does not matter if there is not a great deal of awareness in the beginning. It is important to understand that awareness is not ``self'' either, but a mental phenomenon which arises when there are the right conditions. We cannot force awareness to arise.
In understanding more about physical phenomena and mental phenomena, and in being aware of them in daily life, wisdom will develop. Thus there will be more wholesomeness and less unwholesomeness.
Question: Do you find that awareness in this way brings you happiness?
Nina: When there is understanding of what things really are, there will be more wholesomeness in our life. There will be less clinging to the concept of ``self'' when we perform good deeds, and thus good deeds will be purer. We do not refrain from evil things because we have to follow certain rules, but because we have more understanding as to which causes bring which effects. 
The right understanding of what things are will very gradually eradicate unwholesomeness. When there is less unwholesomeness there will be more peace in life.
Everybody should verify this for himself!


Chapter 2


Right Understanding in Daily Life 

What is the effect of the Buddha's teachings on people's actions? In what way could the Buddha's teachings effectively help people to perform wholesome deeds? Is it possible to do good deeds because a person with authority tells us: ``Be detached and do good deeds''?
From experience we know that a good example might help to some extent, but the source of the good deeds is within ourselves: our mentality determines our actions. If someone wants to do his utmost to help other people he should understand himself first. He should understand the causes which make him act in this or in that way. If he develops right understanding of these causes he will be able to lead a more wholesome life and to help other people in the most effective way. 
Mentality is the source from which deeds spring; it is therefore not possible to determine the degree of wholesomeness from the outward appearance of deeds alone. There are many gradations of wholesomeness depending on the mentality which motivates a good deed.
Some people give money to needy people, but that does not mean that there may not still be conceit or other selfish motives. Others give without conceit, but they may still have attachment: they give only to people they like. There are people who give out of pure loving-kindness, without any thought of attachment. This is a more wholesome way of giving. 
We may wonder whether the study of so many details is necessary. In daily life we will see that it is very helpful to know the different kinds of citta and to know which citta motivates which kind of action. Cittas change all the time, succeeding each other very rapidly. If we learn to distinguish different kinds of citta, we will see that even while we are performing a wholesome deed, unwholesome cittas can follow very closely upon the wholesome cittas. 
``Wholesome'' is the translation of the Påli term ``kusala''. A wholesome deed in its widest sense means a deed which brings no harm to oneself nor to other people at the moment the deed is done or later on.
In the Discourse on the Foreign Cloth (Middle Length Sayings II, no. 88) we read about wholesome deeds, wholesome speech and wholesome thoughts. King Pasenadi questions Ånanda about the nature of unwholesome and wholesome deeds. As to wholesome or ``skilled'' bodily conduct we read the following conversation:

``But what, revered sir, is skilled bodily conduct?''
``Whatever the bodily conduct, sire, that has no blemish.''
``But what, revered sir, is the bodily conduct that has no blemish?''
``Whatever the bodily conduct, sire, that is non-injurious.''
``And what, revered sir, is the bodily conduct that is non-injurious?''
``Whatever the bodily conduct, sire, that is joyous in result.''
``And what, revered sir, is the bodily conduct that is joyous in result?''
``Whatever bodily conduct, sire, does not conduce to the torment of self and does not conduce to the torment of others and does not conduce to the torment of both, and by which the unskilled states dwindle away, the skilled states increase much....''

The same is said about wholesome speech and wholesome thinking. These words render the meaning of wholesome or ``kusala'' in its widest sense. There are many kinds and intensities of kusala. In developing ``right understanding'' or wisdom there can be kusala of a higher degree. 
Wisdom or understanding is a translation of the Påli term ``paņņå''. Paņņå does not only mean knowledge acquired from the study of books, paņņå also includes insight, right understanding of the realities of daily life. Paņņå can be developed in daily life. When paņņå accompanies kusala citta, wholesome citta, there is a higher degree of wholesomeness. There are many degrees of paņņå and each degree brings its result accordingly.
It is a typical Buddhist approach to investigate and to be aware of the different mental phenomena and physical phenomena which can be experienced through eyes, ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind. If one is not used to this approach one might feel somewhat bewildered at first. However, after we have investigated more these mental and physical phenomena, we will find out that only thus it is possible to understand the different ways in which we ourselves and other people behave, and to know which causes bring which effects in life. It makes no sense to speak in vague, general terms about realities, because the real understanding of our experiences in life can never be developed in that way.
Someone told me about a monk who was preaching in a way which was of great help to people in their daily lives. When I asked what the monk was preaching, the answer was that he was speaking about ``citcai''. ``Citcai'' is the word in Thai for ``state of mind'', in Påli: citta. This monk had the right approach to life. One should follow the example of the Buddha; one should not only tell people to do good deeds, but one should teach them as well how to do good deeds. In order to know how to do good deeds, we should go back to the source of the good deeds: the mental states or ``cittas''. It is preferable to use the Påli term ``citta'' rather than a translation from the Påli since translations do not render the meaning of the terms adequately. For example, the English translation of ``citta'' as ``state of mind'' or ``mental state'' implies something which stays, which does not change. But this is not the characteristic of citta. When we have learned more about cittas we will find out that there is no citta which stays, even for a second. Each citta which arises falls away immediately, to be succeeded by the next citta. Cittas determine our life and the lives of other people; they condition the actions we perform in life.
Many people are not used to this approach; they are used to looking at the outward appearance of things. Scientists are very advanced in the study of outer space, but little is known about what goes on inwardly in man. People are used to paying attention to the things they see and hear, but they are not used to attending to seeing-consciousness and to hearing-consciousness. They do not think of the cittas which perform the functions of seeing and hearing.
Seeing-consciousness and hearing-consciousness are realities and therefore it is important to know more about them. That part of the Buddhist teachings which analyses and explains in detail mental phenomena and physical phenomena is called the ``Abhidhamma''. The Abhidhamma deals with everything which is real. Studying the Abhidhamma can change one's life. 
Many Thais listen to lectures about Abhidhamma, and not only those who have been educated at a college or university, but also those who have never received a higher education. I have heard of cases in which the study of different cittas has helped people to lead a more wholesome life. I heard of someone who was at first inclined to have feelings of revenge towards other people, but who was gradually able to overcome those feelings by understanding what those feelings were. Many Thais know about the realities taught in the Abhidhamma, and they are able to apply their knowledge in daily life. Foreigners do not usually hear about this because people do not often speak about Abhidhamma to foreigners.
Unwholesome mental states or ``akusala cittas'' and wholesome mental states or ``kusala cittas'' are realities of daily life. In order to know more about these realities we should try to understand ourselves first: if we do not understand ourselves we cannot help other people. This does not mean, however, that we have to wait our whole life before we can start helping other people. Even those who are just beginning to understand things as they are can help others to have right understanding too. 
Paņņå, wisdom or understanding, is the opposite of ignorance, the root of all defilement and sorrow. Paņņå is important for the development of kusala cittas. It is possible to do good deeds without paņņå, but if there is understanding of what is unwholesome and what is wholesome, and understanding of what the result is of unwholesome and wholesome deeds, one is able to lead a more wholesome life. Thus, the development of paņņå is of great benefit both to ourselves and to others. 
There are many degrees of paņņå. When a teacher explains to his pupils that kusala cittas with gratitude or honesty will bring a pleasant result and that unwholesome deeds motivated by greed or anger will bring an unpleasant result, the explanation may be the condition for them to have some degree of paņņå. With paņņå they may be able to develop kusala cittas and to perform more wholesome deeds.
There is a higher degree of paņņå when people realize the impermanence of all the things they enjoy in life. When people see how short human life is, they will try not to be attached too much to the pleasant things of life. This understanding will stimulate them to a greater generosity and to more readiness to help other people. They will be less selfish.
Some people who have this degree of paņņå might change their way of life and live contentedly without any luxury. Others might decide to ``go forth from home into homelessness''; they might decide to become a monk. A monk's life is not an easy life. He lives without family and is one who is ``contented with little''. In the Discourse on the Sixfold Cleansing (Middle Length Sayings III, no. 112) we read that the Buddha spoke about the monk who told of his renunciation of the world:

``So I, your reverences, after a time, getting rid of my wealth, whether small or great, getting rid of my circle of relations, whether small or great, having cut off my hair and beard, having put on saffron robes, went forth from home into homelessness....''

The Buddha explained that people are too much attached to the sense-impressions received through eyes, ears, nose, tongue and body. He spoke about the ``five strands of sense-pleasures''. We read in the Discourse with Subha (Middle Length Sayings II, no. 99) that the Buddha spoke with Subha about the five strands of sense-pleasures:

... These five, brahman youth, are the strands of pleasures of the senses. What five? Material shapes cognisable by the eye, agreeable, pleasant, liked, enticing, connected with sensual pleasures, alluring. Sounds cognisable by the ear... Smells cognisable by the nose... Tastes cognisable by the tongue... Touches cognisable by the body, agreeable, pleasant, liked, enticing, connected with sensual pleasures, alluring. These, brahman youth, are the five strands of sense-pleasures. Brahman youth, the brahman Pokkharasåti of the Upamaņņa (clan) of the Subhaga forest glade, is enslaved and infatuated by these five strands of sense-pleasures, he is addicted to them, and enjoys them without seeing the peril (in them), without knowing the escape (from them)....

We would like to have pleasant sense-impressions and we are inclined to attach too much importance to them. We are so absorbed in what we see or hear that we forget that sense-impressions are not true happiness. In the Discourse to Mågandiya (Middle Length Sayings II, no. 75) we read that the Buddha said to Mågandiya:

Now I, Mågandiya, when I was formerly a householder, endowed and provided with the five strands of sense-pleasures, revelled in them... But after a time, having known the coming to be and passing away of sense-pleasures and the satisfaction and peril of them and the escape as it really is, getting rid of the craving for sense-pleasures, suppressing the fever for sense-pleasures, I dwelt devoid of thirst, my mind inwardly calmed. I saw other beings not yet devoid of attachment to sense-pleasures who were pursuing sense-pleasures (although) they were being consumed by craving for sense-pleasures, burning with the fever for sense-pleasures. I did not envy them: I had no delight therein....

People who understand that there is a higher happiness than the pleasures which one can enjoy through the five senses might apply themselves to the development of calm or ``samatha''. The calm which is developed in samatha is temporary freedom from attachment, anger and other defilements. There are several meditation subjects of samatha, such as recollection of the Buddha's virtues, mindfulness of breathing or loving-kindness. It depends on a person's accumulations which subject conditions calm for him. Samatha is not a matter of just trying to concentrate on an object. Most important is right understanding of the meditation subject and of the way to attain the calm which is wholesome by means of the meditation subject. If one does not know the difference between kusala citta and akusala citta one is likely to take attachment to silence for kusala and then samatha cannot be developed. One has to know the characteristic of calm which is wholesome, free from akusala. Then there can be conditions for more calm. Calm in samatha can reach such a high degree that one becomes totally absorbed in the meditation subject. There are different stages of this calm absorption or ``jhåna''. During jhåna one does not receive impressions through the five senses and thus one is at those moments not enslaved to them. One enjoys a higher happiness. In higher stages of jhåna one attains a greater tranquillity of mind until one no longer feels rapture or joy; one transcends happy feeling and there is equanimity instead. When, however, the citta is not jhånacitta, there are sense-impressions again.
Samatha is a means for the cultivation of wholesomeness. People who apply themselves to samatha may become very peaceful and amiable. They can be of great comfort to people who are restless. However, in samatha defilements are not eradicated. Although one is not enslaved to sense-impressions during the time of jhåna, one still clings to them when the citta is no longer jhånacitta. The jhånas do not last; they are impermanent. Moreoever, there is a more subtle form of clinging, a clinging to the happiness of the jhånas. One might think that one is without clinging when one does not indulge in sense-pleasures. However, one might still cling to the joy of jhåna which is not associated with sense-pleasures, one might cling to pleasant feeling or equanimity which can accompany jhånacitta. 
For the development of samatha paņņå is necessary, but this kind of paņņå cannot eradicate defilements. There is a higher paņņå which can eradicate all defilements, even the most subtle forms of clinging. This paņņå is developed in ``insight meditation'' or ``vipassanå''. In vipassanå, paņņå gradually eliminates ignorance, the root of all defilements. One learns more about the realities which present themselves through eyes, ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind at any moment. We know so little about the most common things of daily life. How often are we aware of bodily movements during the day? How often are we aware of bodily phenomena such as hardness or softness while we are stretching or bending our arms, or when we are moving our lips while talking? We do not really know what sound is, what hearing is or what it is we take for ``self'' while hearing. We do not know the phenomena which appear at the present moment.
When we are absorbed in the outer appearance and the details of things, we will not be able to be aware of the realities of the present moment. So long as we are carried away by like or dislike of what we see and hear, it is impossible to see things as they are. It is as if we are asleep; we are not yet awake to the truth. The Buddha was perfectly mindful and he had complete knowledge of all the different kinds of mental and physical phenomena. Therefore he could call himself ``the Awakened One''; he was fully awake to the truth. We, too, should wake up to the truth.
In vipassanå, paņņå will gradually develop and it will know things as they are. In being aware of the reality which appears at the present moment we learn that there are two kinds of reality: physical phenomena or rúpa and mental phenomena or nåma. Rúpa does not know anything whereas nåma experiences something; it experiences an object. For example, visible object is rúpa; it does not know anything. Seeing is a type of nåma; it experiences an object: visible object. Hearing and thinking are other types of nåma, different from seeing. There are many different types of nåma and rúpa, and in vipassanå we learn to experience their characteristics. 
In the development of vipassanå the impermanence of nåmas and rúpas will be directly known. One may have reflected before on the impermanence of all things in life. Reflection on the truth is necessary, but it is not the same as the direct knowledge of the impermanence of all realities in and around oneself. In the beginning the arising and falling away of nåma and rúpa cannot be realised. However, if we learn to be aware of different characteristics of nåma and rúpa which appear one at a time, and if we realize that each nåma or rúpa which appears now is different from preceding nåmas and rúpas, we will be less inclined to think that nåma and rúpa last, and we will be less inclined to take them for ``self''. 
In the Greater Discourse of a Full Moon (Middle Length Sayings III, no. 109) we read that the Buddha, while he was staying near Såvatthí in the palace of Migåra's mother in the Eastern Monastery, said to the monks:

``... What do you think about this, monks? Is material shape permanent or impermanent?''
``Impermanent, revered sir.''
``But is what is impermanent painful or is it pleasant?''
``Painful, revered sir.''
``And is it right to regard that which is impermanent, suffering, liable to change, as `This is mine, this am I, this is myself'?''
``No, revered sir.''

The Buddha asked the same about mental phenomena. 
In the Discourse on Mindfulness of the Body (Middle Length Sayings, III, no. 119) we read that the Buddha, when he was staying near Såvatthí, at the Jeta Grove, spoke to the monks about mindfulness of the body and the advantages of it. Some of these are the following:

... He is one who overcomes dislike and liking, and dislike (and liking) do not overcome him; he fares along constantly conquering any dislike (and liking) that have arisen. He is one who overcomes fear and dread, and fear and dread do not overcome him; and he fares along constantly conquering any fear and dread that have arisen. He is one who bears cold, heat, hunger, thirst, the touch of gadfly, mosquito, wind and sun, creeping things, ways of speech that are irksome, unwelcome; he is of a character to bear bodily feelings which, arising, are painful, acute, sharp, shooting, disagreeable, miserable, deadly....

We will gradually learn to give in less to attachment and to anger or aversion when we have realized that these are only different types of nåma which arise because of conditions and then fall away again immediately.
We should not wait to develop insight, right understanding of realities, until we are old or have retired from our work. When we develop this wisdom we will know ourselves better, we will be aware more often of the moments of akusala cittas which arise, even while we are doing good deeds. Conceit about our good deeds may arise or we may expect something in return for our good deeds, such as praise or a good name. When we gradually see more clearly that there are only nåma and rúpa which arise because of conditions, there will eventually be less clinging to a concept of self who performs kusala or akusala. When there is less clinging to the self good deeds will become purer. The paņņå developed in vipassanå is the ``Right Understanding'' of the eightfold Path which leads to nibbåna. Everyone has to tread this Path by himself. One can only purify oneself. One cannot be purified by other people; other people can only help one to find the right Path. There will be no lasting world peace so long as there is craving, ill-will and ignorance. It is very necessary to take part of the world organisations which promote the peace and the welfare of nations, and to give material aid to those who are in need. However, we should realize that this is not enough, that it will only help to a certain degree. The real causes of war are craving, ill-will and ignorance. Only in developing paņņå can we eliminate craving, ill-will and ignorance. 
The eightfold Path leads to nibbåna. Nibbåna is the end of all defilements. It can be realized here and now, in this life. When paņņå has been developed stage by stage it can reach the degree that enlightenment can be attained. At that moment nibbåna is experienced. When one has realized nibbåna one understands what it means to be ``awakened to the truth''. 






 

Chapter 3


The Teaching of Dhamma

The Buddha proved his compassion for men in his teaching of Dhamma. One may wonder why it is especially the teaching of Dhamma that proves the Buddha's compassion. Are there no other ways of helping people, such as visiting the sick and speaking kind words to other people in order to make them happy? It is true that one can help one's fellow men in doing good deeds and in speaking kind words. However, it is not possible to give them true happiness in this way. When one is kind to other people one might help them in so far as one can make them feel more relaxed or less depressed for a moment. However, there are people who tend to go on being anxious and depressed, no matter how kindly one treats them.
The Buddha knew that the deepest cause of happiness and sorrow is within man. It is not possible to give other people real happiness; one can only be a condition for them to feel happy for a while. The Buddha helped people in the most effective way: he helped them to have right understanding about their life, about themselves, and about the way to find true happiness.
His disciples followed his example and helped people by teaching them Dhamma. We read in the Discourse on an Exhortation to Channa (Middle Length Sayings III, no. 144) that Såriputta and Mahå Cunda, while they were staying on Mount Vulture Peak, visited a sick monk whose name was Channa. First Såriputta asked Channa how he was feeling, and then he offered to give him the right kind of food and medicines, and to attend personally to his needs if he wanted this. However, he knew that kind words and deeds were not enough. When it was the right moment Såriputta and Mahå Cunda spoke to Channa about the Dhamma, in order to help him to have right understanding about his life. 
In the Discourse on the Analysis of the Undefiled (Middle Length Sayings III, no. 139) we read that the Buddha, when he was staying near Såvatthí in the Jeta Grove, spoke about the eightfold Path which is the ``Middle Way''. One should not be intent on the happiness of sense-pleasures and on the other hand not be intent on the practice of self-mortification. The Buddha told his disciples that they should not say of other people that they are walking the right path or the wrong path; he said that there should be neither approval nor disapproval of persons, but that they should teach them what is the right course and what is the wrong course. They should teach them which cause brings which effect. They should simply teach Dhamma. Dhamma means everything that is real. The Buddha helped people to develop right understanding about everything one can experience, no matter whether it is good or bad. 
If one wants to eliminate defilements one should first understand what are akusala cittas and what are kusala cittas and be aware of them when they arise. Only when we can be aware of cittas when they appear will we know them as they are. We will not know cittas by speculation. As we have seen, cittas do not last. Citta arises and then falls away immediately to be followed by the next citta. There is only one citta at a time. Life consists of an unbroken series of cittas, arising and falling away continuously. There is no moment without citta. There are many kinds of cittas which perform different functions such as seeing, hearing and thinking. Moreover, there are akusala cittas, unwholesome cittas, and kusala cittas, wholesome cittas. An akusala citta and a kusala citta cannot arise at the same moment since there can be only one citta at a time. However, akusala cittas may arise shortly after kusala cittas have fallen away, even during the time one is doing a good deed. When the kusala cittas have fallen away, regret about one's good deed may arise. This is akusala.
In the Discourse on an Exhortation to Channa, mentioned above, we read that Channa suffered severe pains. As he could not stand the pains any longer he committed suicide. The Buddha knew that before the moment of his death Channa had kusala cittas after the akusala cittas which motivated him to perform this unwholesome deed. He was able to purify himself of defilements after his deed. The Buddha said therefore: ``He took the knife to himself without incurring blame''. We do not know about the citta of someone else from the outward appearance of his deeds, because we do not know each different moment of citta. We can only find out with regard to ourselves at which moment there is akusala citta or kusala citta, and even that is most difficult. 
Akusala cittas can be rooted in three different unwholesome ``roots'', ``akusala hetus''. They are:

attachment (in Påli: lobha)
aversion or ill-will (in Påli: dosa)
ignorance (in Påli: moha)

By the word ``root'' is meant the foundation of the citta. The root is the foundation of the citta just as the root of a tree supports the tree and makes it grow. There are many different degrees of these three akusala hetus.
All akusala cittas are caused by moha, ignorance. Ignorance is, for example, not knowing what is unwholesome and what is wholesome, and not knowing which cause brings which result in life. There are many degrees of moha. An animal has a great deal of moha; it does not know about kusala and akusala, it does not know how to cultivate wholesomeness. However, not only animals have moha, human beings can have a great deal of moha as well. Akusala cittas arise more often than kusala cittas and thus there are countless moments of moha, no matter whether we are walking, standing, sitting or lying down. Moha can only be completely eradicated when paņņå has been developed to the degree that one can reach perfection, that is, when one has become an arahat at the attainment of the fourth and last stage of enlightenment.
When the citta which arises is accompanied by lobha, attachment, and by moha, the citta is called ``lobha-múla-citta'', or citta rooted in attachment. At that moment there is not only moha, which is common to all akusala cittas but there is lobha as well. Lobha-múla-citta which has moha and lobha as roots is different from the citta which is rooted only in moha, ignorance of realities. Lobha can be greed, lust, selfish desire, and it can be a very subtle form of attachment as well, a form of attachment one can hardly recognize if one does not yet have the right understanding.
Lobha can be accompanied by pleasant feeling. For instance, when we enjoy beautiful music there is lobha-múla-citta. Then the citta is akusala, although this kind of lobha is not as gross as greed or lust. One might be inclined to think that whenever there is pleasant feeling, the citta which is accompanied by this feeling must be kusala citta. However, when there is pleasant feeling the citta is not necessarily kusala citta; pleasant feeling can also accompany akusala citta. For instance, when we do a good deed there can be kusala citta with pleasant feeling, but when we feel happy because of beautiful music or a beautiful view, the citta is akusala; it is lobha-múla-citta with pleasant feeling. We can be deluded about the truth very easily. We find feeling so important that we cannot see anything else. We are unable to know whether the citta is akusala or kusala because we pay attention only to the feeling at that moment.
Lobha-múla-cittas, cittas rooted in attachment, can be accompanied either by pleasant feeling or by indifferent feeling. When we want to do something such as standing up, walking, taking hold of an object, the lobha-múla-cittas which arise may be accompanied by indifferent feeling. We do not, usually, have pleasant feeling when we stand up or when we reach for a glass of water. We cannot help having lobha very often. All people, except arahats are bound to have lobha.
The Buddha did not speak to those who still have defilements in terms of ``sin'' or ``punishment''. The Buddha pointed out everything which is real and he explained which cause would bring which effect. The bad deeds one does will bring about their own results, just as a seed produces a tree. This is the law of cause and result, of ``kamma'' and ``vipåka''. The Buddha explained to his disciples that there should be neither approval nor disapproval of persons, but that they should simply teach Dhamma. In that way people will know what is real. Lobha is real and one should therefore know what lobha is, what its characteristic is, and when it arises.
Another unwholesome root is dosa, aversion. When the citta which arises is accompanied by dosa and moha, the citta is called ``dosa-múla-citta'', citta rooted in aversion. At that moment there is not only moha, which is common to all akusala cittas, but there is dosa as well. Dosa appears in its coarsest form as anger or ill-will. There is dosa when one hurts or kills a living being, when one speaks harsh words, or when one curses. Dosa is always accompanied by unpleasant feeling.
There are more subtle forms of dosa as well: dosa can be a slight aversion when we see or hear something unpleasant, or when we are in a bad mood. Dosa can be recognized by the feeling which accompanies it. Even when there is a very vague feeling of uneasiness we can be sure there is dosa. Dosa arises quite often in a day. We are bound to have dosa when there is a loud noise or an ugly sight.
There are three ``wholesome roots'' or ``sobhana hetus'', which are the opposite of the akusala hetus. They are:

non-attachment (alobha)
non-aversion or kindness (adosa)
wisdom (amoha or paņņå)

Kusala cittas are not accompanied by lobha, dosa or moha. They are always accompanied by alobha, non-attachment, and adosa, non-aversion, but not always by paņņå. Thus, citta can be kusala without wisdom (paņņå). One can, for example, help other people without understanding that helping is kusala and that wholesome deeds bring pleasant results. However, when there is paņņå the citta has a higher degree of wholesomeness. If one observes the precepts only because one considers them as rules, prescribed in the teachings, without any understanding of the reasons for those precepts, ill deeds can be suppressed, but not at all times. If the temptations are too strong one will transgress the precepts. If one has understanding of unwholesome deeds and wholesome deeds, and knows the effect of those deeds, this understanding is a condition for observing the precepts more often. We can develop more wholesomeness in understanding realities, in understanding their causes and effects. 
Everyone, except the arahat, has both akusala cittas and kusala cittas. Each citta arises because of the appropriate conditions. Cittas cannot arise without conditions. It depends on various conditions whether there will be akusala citta or kusala citta. We all have accumulated conditions for both unwholesomeness and wholesomeness. If the present citta is akusala one accumulates a condition for more unwholesomeness and if the present citta is kusala one accumulates a condition for more wholesomeness. For example, when we have a slight feeling of aversion, there is dosa-múla-citta. If dosa-múla-cittas occur quite often, we accumulate dosa and dosa becomes a habit. If one is easily inclined to strong dosa it can motivate unwholesome deeds and unwholesome speech.
One may wonder how one can accumulate unwholesomeness and wholesomeness, as each citta which arises falls away completely. Each citta which arises falls away completely but it conditions the succeeding citta. Cittas arise and fall away in succession. That is the reason why past accumulations can go on from one moment to the next moment. If we understand how different people's accumulations are we will be less inclined to blame other people when they do wrong. We will try to help them to have right understanding of the accumulation of kusala and akusala. If we have more right understanding of the conditions which make us act the way we do we will be able to lead a more wholesome life.
One may wonder what the Buddha taught about the will or intention which motivates ill deeds and good deeds. Is there no ``free will'' which can direct one's actions, speech and thinking? When we think of a ``free will'', we generally think of a ``self'' who has control over one's decisions to do good or to do wrong. However, cittas arise because of their own conditions; there is no ``self'' who can let cittas arise at will.
The Påli term ``kamma'' literally means action. In reality kamma is intention or volition. It is not that which is generally understood by ``free will''. Kamma does not last, it arises and falls away with the citta. Thus, one should not take it for ``self'' or as belonging to a ``self''. Kusala kamma or akusala kamma is volition which motivates good or bad deeds. For example, there is akusala kamma through the body when one hits someone; there is akusala kamma through speech when one speaks harsh words or when one curses someone; there is akusala kamma through the mind when one has the intention to take away something which belongs to someone else, or when one plans to kill someone.
The Buddha taught that everyone will experience the result of the kamma he has performed; one will reap what one has sown. Kamma is the cause which produces its result. The mental result of kamma is a type of citta which is called ``vipåkacitta''. Akusala kamma will bring an unpleasant result or akusala vipåkacitta; kusala kamma will bring a pleasant result or kusala vipåkacitta.
People are born with different mental capacities, with different bodily features and in different circumstances. In the Discourse on the Lesser Analysis of Deeds (Middle Length Sayings III, no. 135) we read that, when the Buddha was staying near Såvatthí in the Jeta Grove, the brahman Subha asked him what the cause was of the differences among human beings:

``Now, good Gotama, what is the cause, what is the reason that lowness and excellence are to be seen among human beings while they are in human form? For, good Gotama, human beings of short lifespan are to be seen and those of long lifespan; those of many and those of few illnesses; those who are ugly, those who are beautiful; those who are of little account, those of great account; those who are poor, those who are wealthy; those who are of lowly families, those of high families; those who are weak in wisdom, those who are full of wisdom.'' 

The Buddha answered Subha:

``Deeds (kamma) are one's own, brahman youth, beings are heirs to deeds, deeds are matrix, deeds are kin, deeds are arbiters. Deed divides beings, that is to say by lowness and excellence.'' 

Not only birth in a certain plane of existence and in certain surroundings is the result of kamma. Throughout our life we receive unpleasant and pleasant results. Everyone would like to experience only pleasant things through eyes, ears, nose, tongue and bodysense. However, everyone is bound to experience both unpleasant and pleasant things through the five senses because everyone has performed both akusala kamma and kusala kamma.
A deed we have performed may produce a result shortly afterwards, or it may produce a result a long time afterwards. We should remember that volition or kamma which motivates a deed is a mental phenomenon and that it can therefore be accumulated. Thus, it can bring about its result later on. The Buddha taught that the akusala kamma and the kusala kamma we have accumulated throughout our life and during countless existences before this life, will produce their results when there are the right conditions for the results to be produced. Vipåkacitta is the result of kamma. When we see unpleasant things, there is at that moment akusala vipåka, which is the result of akusala kamma. This akusala vipåkacitta receives an unpleasant object through the eyes. When we see pleasant things, the kusala vipåkacitta, which is the result of kusala kamma, receives a pleasant object through the eyes. When we hear unpleasant things the akusala vipåkacitta, which is the result of akusala kamma, receives an unpleasant object through the ears. When we hear pleasant things the kusala vipåkacitta, which is the result of kusala kamma, receives a pleasant object through the ears. There is vipåka every time we see, hear, smell, taste or receive an impression through body-contact. We cannot prevent the arising of vipåkacitta; we cannot help seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and receiving impressions through body-contact. Each citta, and thus also each vipåkacitta, has its own conditions; nobody can make cittas arise at will. Which particular vipåkacitta arises at the present moment is beyond control. When one does good deeds one can be sure that those deeds will bring a pleasant result, but the moment when the result will take place depends on other conditions as well.
The akusala vipåkacitta which experiences an unpleasant object through the eyes, is not the same as the akusala vipåkacitta which experiences an unpleasant object through the ears. There is not a ``self'' who experiences different unpleasant and pleasant objects through the five senses. Each citta has its own conditions and it is different from all other cittas. The more one realizes this truth, the less will one be inclined to believe in a ``self''. 
Vipåkacittas arise and fall away within split-seconds, like all other types of citta. After the vipåkacittas have fallen away another type of citta arises; for example, a citta which likes or dislikes the object, that is, lobha-múla-citta or dosa-múla-citta. If people do not know the different types of cittas, they may be inclined to think that like or dislike is still vipåka. However, like and dislike arise after the vipåkacittas have fallen away; they are not the result of kamma. Lobha-múla-citta or dosa-múla-citta is not vipåkacitta but akusala citta.
Different types of citta succeed one another very rapidly. For example, when we hear a harsh sound, the vipåkacitta arises at the moment the sound is perceived through the ears and then falls away immediately. The moments of vipåka are extremely short. After that there may be akusala cittas. For instance, dislike of the sound may arise, and this follows so closely that it seems to occur at the same moment as the hearing. In reality these cittas do not arise at the same moment. Each citta has its own conditions and each citta performs its own function. Vipåkacitta is the result of former akusala kamma or kusala kamma. The like or dislike after the vipåka is unwholesome. We should realize that through the arising of akusala citta more akusala is accumulated and that this leads to still more unwholesomeness in our lives.
Many times we may not know at which moment there is vipåka and at which moment there is akusala citta, because we find our feelings about the object we experience so important. The pleasant feeling which accompanies lobha-múla-citta and the unpleasant feeling which accompanies dosa-múla-citta can be so strong that we are carried away by these feelings. Thus we cannot see things as they are.
Part of our life is spent in receiving pleasant or unpleasant results and part of our life is spent with akusala cittas or kusala cittas which can motivate unwholesome or wholesome deeds. These deeds condition life in the future, they condition the results which will be received in the future. If we have more understanding of vipåka, which is the result of our own deeds, it will help us to be more patient when there are unpleasant results in our life. We will not blame other people for unpleasant vipåka we receive, because kamma is the real cause of vipåka. We will give in less to our feelings concerning vipåka when we know the different cittas which arise at different moments.
Indeed, the Buddha showed his great compassion in teaching people to understand reality, in teaching them Dhamma.


Chapter 4


Wholesome Deeds

The Buddha helped people to have right understanding of unwholesomeness and wholesomeness; he helped them by teaching them Dhamma. Dhamma excels all other gifts, because the most beneficial gift one can give others is helping them to develop right understanding so that they can lead a more wholesome life. In this way they will find more happiness.
In the Gradual Sayings (Book of the Twos, Ch IV, § 2) we read that it is not easy to repay one's parents for all they have done:

Monks, it is not an easy task to repay two persons, I declare. What two? Mother and father. Even if one should carry about his mother on one shoulder and his father on the other, and so doing should live a hundred years, attain a hundred years; and if he should support them, anointing them with unguents... if he should establish his parents in supreme authority, in the absolute rule over this mighty earth abounding in the seven treasures-not even thus could he repay his parents. What is the cause of that? Monks, parents do much for their children: they bring them up, they nourish them, they introduce them to this world.
Moreover, monks, whoso incites his unbelieving parents, settles and establishes them in faith; whoso incites his immoral parents, settles and establishes them in morality; whoso incites his stingy parents, settles and establishes them in liberality; whoso incites his foolish parents , settles and establishes them in wisdom,-- such a one, just by so doing, does repay, does more than repay what is due to his parents.

In this sutta the Buddha points out how important it is to help other people to have right understanding about the development of wholesomeness; he explained that this is the way to repay one's parents. Establishing one's parents in faith is mentioned first. The word ``faith'' however, is not used in the sense of ``faith in a person''. The Buddha did not want people to perform wholesome deeds in obedience to him or in obedience to certain rules. Faith means confidence in wholesomeness, confidence that the cultivation of wholesomeness is beneficial. Therefore, any time there is wholesomeness there must be faith. After faith the above-quoted sutta speaks about ``morality'', and then generosity is mentioned. Wisdom or right understanding is mentioned last.
When the different ways of kusala kamma are explained in the suttas, dåna or generosity is usually mentioned first, síla or morality is mentioned next, and after that ``bhåvanå'' or mental development. There are many ways to develop kusala and understanding of these ways conditions the performing of them. Paņņå, understanding, is the factor which above all conditions the elimination of akusala and the development of kusala. There can be dåna and síla without paņņå, but when there is paņņå, dåna and síla are of a higher degree of kusala. There can be no bhåvanå or mental development without paņņå. Paņņå is an indispensable factor for bhåvanå, and on the other hand paņņå is developed through bhåvanå. 
Paņņå, understanding things as they are, will help people to lead a more wholesome life. There are many levels of paņņå. To the extent that paņņå is developed defilements will be eliminated and thus people will find peace of mind. It is beneficial to develop right understanding of akusala as akusala and of kusala as kusala and to help others to develop this understanding as well. 
All akusala cittas are caused by ignorance or moha. There are different types of akusala citta. Some akusala cittas are rooted in moha alone. There are also akusala cittas rooted in moha and lobha. Lobha is attachment, selfishness or greed. Furthermore there are akusala cittas rooted in moha and dosa. Dosa is aversion, ill-will or anger. Unwholesome deeds are motivated by akusala cittas. 
When there is kusala citta there are no lobha, dosa or moha with the citta. Wholesome deeds are motivated by kusala cittas. When we perform dåna, síla or bhåvanå, there are no lobha, dosa or moha with the kusala cittas which motivate these wholesome deeds. It is helpful to know more about dåna, síla and bhåvana in order to lead a more wholesome life. 
One way of developing wholesomeness is dåna. Dåna is giving useful things to other people, for example, giving away food, clothing or money to those who are in need. True generosity is a way of eliminating defilements: at such moments we think of other people, we have no selfish thoughts. When there is generosity there are no lobha, dosa or moha.
Giving with the right understanding that generosity is kusala is more wholesome than giving without this understanding. People who give with the understanding that this wholesome act is a means to have less selfishness, are stimulated to develop more wholesomeness. One may think it a selfish attitude to consider one's own accumulation of kusala. However, it is not a selfish attitude. When we have the right understanding of the ways to develop kusala, it is the condition for kusala cittas to arise more often and this is to the benefit of everyone. It is to our fellow-man's advantage too when lobha, dosa and moha are eliminated. It is more agreeable to live with someone who is not selfish and who is not angry than with a selfish or an angry person.
There are many degrees of paņņå. When paņņå is more highly developed, one understands that it is not ``self'' who performs wholesome deeds, but cittas which are conditioned by the accumulation of kusala in the past. Thus there is no reason for conceit or pride. By the development of paņņå, which is a mental phenomenon and which is not ``self'', more wholesomeness can be accumulated. 
Young children in Thailand are trained to give food to the monks and thus they accumulate kusala. The Thais call the performing of good deeds ``tham bun''. When children learn to do good deeds at an early age it is a condition for them to continue to be generous when they are grown-up.
When someone gives food to the monks, it is the giver in the first place who will benefit from this wholesome act; the monks give him the opportunity to develop wholesomeness. The monks do not thank people for their gifts; they say words of blessing which show that they rejoice in the good deeds of the giver. One might find it strange at first that the monks do not thank people, but when there is more understanding of the way wholesomeness is developed, one sees these customs in another light.
Even when we are not giving something away ourselves, there is still opportunity to develop wholesomeness in appreciating the good deeds of other people: at that moment there are no lobha, dosa or moha. The appreciation of other people's good deeds is a way of kusala kamma included in dåna as well. It is to everyone's advantage when people appreciate one another's good deeds. It contributes to harmonious living in society.
The third way of kusala kamma included in dåna concerns giving others, no matter whether they are in this world or in other planes of existence, the opportunity to appreciate our good deeds so that they can have kusala cittas as well. In performing kusala we can help others to perform kusala as well. It is very inspiring to see other people looking after their old parents, or to see people studying and teaching Dhamma. We should follow the example of the Buddha. We should continually think of means to help others to develop wholesomeness. This way of kusala kamma is a means to eliminate our defilements. There are opportunities to develop kusala at any moment. When we have developed more wisdom we will try not to waste the opportunity for kusala which presents itself, because human life is very short.
There are three ways of kusala kamma included in síla or morality. The first way is observing the precepts. Laypeople usually observe five precepts. These precepts are:

abstaining from killing living beings
abstaining from stealing
abstaining from sexual misbehaviour
abstaining from lying
abstaining from the taking of intoxicants 
	including alcoholic drinks

One can observe these precepts just because one follows the rules without thinking about the reason why one should observe them. Observing them is kusala kamma, but the degree of wholesomeness is not very high if there is no right understanding. One observes the precepts with paņņå when one understands that one purifies oneself of akusala while one observes them.
The killing of a living being is akusala kamma. One may wonder whether it is not sometimes necessary to kill. Should one not kill when there is a war, should one not kill insects to protect the crops, should one not kill mosquitos to protect one's health? The Buddha knew that so long as people were living in this world they would have many reasons for transgressing the precepts. He knew that it is very difficult to observe all the precepts and that one cannot learn in one day to observe them all. Through right understanding, however, one can gradually learn to observe them. The precepts are not worded in terms of, for example, ``You shall not kill''. They are not worded as commandments, but they are worded as follows: ``I undertake the rule of training to refrain from destroying life.''
The Buddha pointed out what is unwholesome and what is wholesome, so that people would find the way to true peace. It is paņņå or right understanding which will lead people to train themselves in the precepts. Without paņņå they will transgress them very easily when the temptations are too strong, or when the situation is such as to make it very difficult for people to observe them. When paņņå is more developed it conditions the observing of the precepts more often. One will find out from experience that the precepts are transgressed because of lobha, dosa and moha. When it has been understood that observing the precepts is a way of eliminating defilements, one will even refrain from intentionally killing mosquitos and ants. We always accumulate dosa when there is the intention to kill, even if it is a very small insect. We should find out for ourselves that we accumulate akusala when killing living beings, no matter whether they are human beings or animals. However, we cannot force others to refrain from killing living beings.
To refrain from killing is a kind of dåna as well-it is the gift of life, one of the greatest gifts we can give. The classification of kusala kamma as to whether it be dåna or síla is not very rigid. The way realities are classified depends on their different aspects.
As regards the taking of intoxicants, people should find out for themselves how much unwholesomeness is accumulated in this way. Even if one has but a slight attachment to them, one accumulates unwholesomeness, and this may be harmful in the future. When the attachment is strong enough it will appear in one's speech and deeds. Even the taking of a little amount of an alcoholic drink can cause one to have more greed, anger and ignorance. It may have the effect that people do not realize what they are doing and that they cannot be aware of the realities of the present moment. Paņņå will induce one to drink less and less and eventually to stop drinking. One does not have to force oneself not to drink, one just loses the taste for alcohol because one sees the disadvantages of it. In this way it becomes one's nature not to drink. The person who has developed paņņå to such degree that he attains the first stage of enlightenment, the ``streamwinner'' or ``sotåpanna'', will never transgress the five precepts again; it has become his nature to observe them.
The second way of kusala kamma included in síla is paying respect to those who deserve respect. It is not necessary to show respect according to a particular culture; the esteem we feel for someone else is more important. This induces us to have a humble attitude towards the person who deserves respect. The way in which people show respect depends on the customs of the country where they are living or on the habits they have accumulated. In Thailand people show respect to monks, teachers and elderly people in a way different from the way people in western countries show their respect. In some countries the respect people feel towards others may appear only in a very polite way of addressing them.
Politeness which comes from one's heart is kusala kamma; at that moment there are no lobha, dosa and moha. It is kusala kamma to show respect to monks, to teachers and to elderly people. In Thailand people show respect to their ancestors; they express their gratefulness for the good qualities of their ancestors. This is kusala kamma. It is not important whether ancestors are able to see the people paying respect to them or not. We cannot know in which plane they have been reborn-in this human plane, or in some other plane of existence where they might be able to see people paying respect to them. It is wholesome to think of one's ancestors with gratefulness. 
We should always try to find out whether there are akusala cittas or kusala cittas which motivate a deed, in order to understand the meaning of that deed. Thus we will understand and appreciate many customs of the Thais and we will not so easily misjudge them or find them superstitious. In the same way we should understand the paying of respect to the Buddha image. It is not idol worship; indeed, it is kusala kamma if one thinks of the Buddha's excellent qualities: of his wisdom, of his purity and of his compassion. One does not pray to a Buddha in heaven, because the Buddha does not stay in heaven or in any plane of existence; he passed away completely. It is wholesome to be grateful to the Buddha and to try to follow the Path he discovered. In which way one shows respect to the Buddha depends on the inclinations one has accumulated.
The third way of kusala kamma included in síla is helping other people by words or deeds. The act of helping other people will have a higher degree of wholesomeness if there is the right understanding that helping is kusala kamma, and that this is a way to eliminate selfishness and other defilements. Thus one will be urged to perform more kusala kamma; one will be more firmly established in síla. It is therefore more wholesome to perform síla with right understanding or paņņå.
Performing one's duties is not always kusala kamma: people may perform their duties just because they are paid for their work. For example, a teacher teaches his pupils and a doctor takes care of his patients because it is their profession to do so. However, they can develop wholesomeness if they perform their duties with kindness and compassion.
Paņņå conditions one to perform kusala kamma, no matter what one's duties are. Wholesomeness can be developed at any time we are with other people, when we talk to them or listen to them.
Helping other people with kind words and deeds alone is not enough. When it is the right moment we can help others in a deeper and more effective way, that is, helping them to understand who they are, why they are in this world and what the aim of their life in this world is. This way of helping is included in bhåvanå or mental development.

 

 
 
Chapter 5


Mental Development

The Buddha said that one should realize the impermanence of all things. Everybody is subject to old age, sickness and death. All things are susceptible to change. What one is enjoying today may be changed tomorrow. Many people do not want to face this truth; they are too attached to the pleasant things they can enjoy through eyes, ears, nose, tongue and bodysense. They do not realize that these things are not true happiness.
The Buddha cured people's ignorance by helping them to have right understanding about their life; he taught them Dhamma. The Buddha taught different ways of developing wholesomeness: dåna or generosity, síla or morality and bhåvanå or mental development. Bhåvanå is a way of kusala kamma which is on a higher level, because wisdom is developed through bhåvanå.
One may wonder why wisdom, paņņå, is essential. The answer is that only understanding things as they are can eliminate ignorance. Out of ignorance people take what is unwholesome for wholesome. Ignorance causes sorrow. The Buddha always helped people to have right understanding of their different cittas. He explained what akusala cittas and kusala cittas are, in order that people could develop more wholesomeness.
We can verify in our life that the Buddha taught the truth. His teachings are true not only for Buddhists, but for everybody, no matter what race or nationality he is or what religion he professes. Attachment or greed (in Påli: lobha), aversion or anger (in Påli: dosa) and ignorance (in Påli: moha) are common to everybody, not only to Buddhists. Should not everyone eradicate lobha, dosa and moha?
People do not always realize that lobha, dosa and moha lead to sorrow. They may recognize unwholesomeness when it is coarse, but not when it is more subtle. For example, they may know that the citta is unwholesome when there is lobha which is as coarse as greed or lust, but they do not recognize lobha when it is more subtle, such as attachment to beautiful things or to dear people. Why is it unwholesome to have attachment to our relatives and friends? It is true that we are bound to have lobha, but we should realize that attachment is not the same as pure loving-kindness (in Påli: mettå). When we think that we have pure loving-kindness, there can be moments of attachment too. Attachment is not wholesome; it will sooner or later bring unhappiness. Although people may not like to see this truth, one day they will experience that lobha brings unhappiness. Through death we are bound to lose people who are dear to us. And when sickness or old age affect our sense faculties we may no longer be able to enjoy beautiful things through eyes and ears.
If we do not have the right understanding of the realities of life we will not know how to bear the loss of dear people. We read in the Udåna (Verses of Uplift, Ch VIII, Påėaligåma, §8, Khuddaka Nikåya) that, while the Buddha was staying near Såvatthí in East Park, at the storeyed house of Migåra's mother, Visåkhå came to see him. Visåkhå who had lost her grand-daughter came to see the Buddha with wet clothes and wet hair. The Buddha said:

``Why, Visåkhå! How is it that you come here with clothes and hair still wet at an unseasonable hour?''
``O, sir, my dear and lovely grand-daughter is dead! That is why I come here with hair and clothes still wet at an unseasonable hour.''
``Visåkhå, would you like to have as many sons and grandsons as there are men in Såvatthí?''
``Yes, sir, I would indeed!''
``But how many men do you suppose die daily in Såvatthí?''
``Ten, sir, or maybe nine, or eight. Maybe seven, six, five or four, three, two; may be one a day dies in Såvatthí, sir. Såvatthí is never free from men dying, sir.''
``What think you, Visåkhå? In such case would you ever be without wet hair and clothes?''
``Surely not, sir! Enough for me, sir, of so many sons and grandsons!''
``Visåkhå, whoso have a hundred things beloved, they have a hundred sorrows. Whoso have ninety, eighty... thirty, twenty things beloved... whoso have ten... whoso have but one thing beloved, have but one sorrow. Whoso have no thing beloved, they have no sorrow. Sorrowless are they and passionless. Serene are they, I declare.''
People who see that it is unwholesome to be enslaved by attachment to people and to the things around themselves, want to develop more understanding of realities by applying themselves to bhåvanå, mental development. Studying the Buddha's teachings and explaining them to others is kusala kamma included in bhåvanå. In studying the teachings paņņå will be developed. If we want to understand what the Buddha taught it is essential to read the scriptures as they have come down to us at the present time in the ``Three Collections'': the ``Vinaya'', the ``Suttanta'' and the ``Abhidhamma''. Study alone, however, is not enough. We should experience the truth of Dhamma in daily life. Only then will we know things as they really are. Teaching Dhamma to other people is kusala kamma of a high degree. In this way one not only helps others to have more understanding about their life, one develops one's own understanding as well. Teaching Dhamma is the most effective way of helping other people to develop kusala and to eradicate akusala. 
Another way of kusala kamma included in bhåvanå is the development of calm or ``samatha bhåvanå''. In samatha there are specific meditation subjects which can condition the calm which is temporary freedom from lobha, dosa and moha. One must have right understanding of the meditation subject and of the way to become calm. When samatha has been highly developed different stages of jhåna or absorption can be attained. However, the attainment of jhåna is extremely difficult and one must have accumulated the right conditions in order to attain it. When the citta is jhånacitta there are no lobha, dosa and moha. Jhåna is kusala kamma of a high degree. Jhåna is not the same as a trance which might be experienced after taking certain drugs. Those who take drugs want to obtain the desired end in an easy way and their action is prompted by lobha. Those who apply themselves to samatha have the sincere wish to purify themselves of lobha, dosa and moha; they do not look for sensational or thrilling experiences.
Samatha can purify the mind, but it cannot eradicate unwholesome latent tendencies. When the citta is not jhånacitta, lobha, dosa and moha are bound to arise again. The person who applies himself to samatha cannot eradicate the belief in a self, and so long as there is the concept of self, defilements cannot be eradicated.
The clinging to the concept of self can only be eradicated through vipassanå. Vipassanå or ``insight meditation'' is another way of kusala kamma included in bhåvanå. Through the development of vipassanå ignorance of realities is eliminated. One learns to see things as they are in being aware, for example, when one sees, hears, smells, tastes, when one receives impressions through the bodysense or when one thinks. When we experience that all things in ourselves and around ourselves are only mental phenomena or nåma and physical phenomena or rúpa which arise and fall away, we will be less inclined to take them for self.
What is the reason that we all are inclined to cling to a self? The reason is that because of our ignorance we do not know things as they really are. When we hear a sound, we are ignorant of the different phenomena which occur during the moment we are hearing that sound. We think that it is a self who is hearing. However, it is not a self who is hearing; it is a citta which hears the sound. Citta is a mental phenomenon, it is nåma, that is, the reality which experiences something. The citta which hears experiences sound. Sound itself does not experience anything, it is rúpa. Rúpa is the reality which does not experience anything. Sound and earsense are conditions for hearing. Earsense is rúpa as well. One may wonder whether it is true that earsense does not experience anything. Earsense is a kind of rúpa in the ear which has the capacity to receive sound, but it does not experience the sound. It is only a condition for the nåma which experiences the sound. Each citta has its own conditions through which it arises. Seeing is conditioned by eyesense which is rúpa and by visible object which is also rúpa. There is no self who performs different functions such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, receiving impressions through the bodysense and thinking. These are different nåmas, each of which arises because of its own conditions.
We read in the Greater Discourse on the Destruction of Craving (Middle Length Sayings I, no. 38) that the Buddha, while he was staying near Såvatthí, in the Jeta Grove, spoke to the monk Såti who had a misconception about the Buddha's teachings. Såti understood from the Buddha's teachings that consciousness lasts, and that it is one and the same consciousness which speaks, feels, and experiences the results of good and bad deeds. Several monks heard about Såti's wrong view. After they had tried in vain to dissuade him from his wrong view, they spoke to the Buddha about him. The Buddha summoned Såti and said to him:

``Is it true, as is said, that a pernicious view like this has accrued to you, Såti: `In so far as I understand Dhamma taught by the Lord, it is that this consciousness itself runs on, fares on, not another'?''
``Even so do I, Lord, understand Dhamma taught by the Lord: it is this consciousness itself that runs on, fares on, not another.''
``What is this consciousness, Såti?''
``It is this, Lord, that speaks, that feels, that experiences now here, now there, the fruition of deeds that are lovely and that are depraved.''
``But to whom, foolish man, do you understand that Dhamma was taught by me thus? Foolish man, has not consciousness generated by conditions been spoken of in many a figure by me, saying: `Apart from condition there is no origination of consciousness'? But now you, foolish man, not only misrepresent me because of your own wrong grasp, but you also injure yourself and give rise to much demerit which, foolish man, will be for your woe and sorrow for a long time.''
... Then the Lord addressed the monks, saying:
``Do you, monks, understand that Dhamma was taught by me thus so that this monk Såti, a fisherman's son, because of his own wrong grasp not only misrepresents me but is also injuring himself and giving rise to much demerit?''
``No, Lord. For in many a figure has consciousness generated by conditions been spoken of to us by the Lord, saying: `Apart from condition there is no origination of consciousness.' ``
``It is good, monks, it is good that you understand thus Dhamma taught by me to you, monks. For in many a figure has consciousness generated by conditions been spoken of by me to you, monks, saying: `Apart from condition there is no origination of consciousness.' 
... It is because, monks, an appropriate condition arises that consciousness is known by this or that name: if consciousness arises because of eye and material shapes, it is known as seeing-consciousness; if consciousness arises because of ear and sounds it is known as hearing-consciousness; if consciousness arises because of nose and smells, it is known as smelling-consciousness; if consciousness arises because of tongue and tastes it is known as tasting-consciousness; if consciousness arises because of body and touches, it is known as tactile-consciousness; if consciousness arises because of mind and mental objects, it is known as mental consciousness. Monks, as a fire burns because of this or that appropriate condition, by that it is known; if a fire burns because of sticks, it is known as a stick-fire; and if a fire burns because of chips, it is known as a chip-fire; and if a fire burns because of grass, it is known as a grass-fire; and if a fire burns because of cowdung, it is known as a cowdung-fire; and if a fire burns because of chaff, it is known as a chaff-fire; and if a fire burns because of rubbish, it is known as a rubbish-fire. Even so, monks, when because of a condition appropriate to it consciousness arises, it is known by this or that name... ``

Thinking about different kinds of nåma and rúpa and the conditions for their arising will help us to have right understanding of them. However, this is not the same as the direct experience of the truth. We will understand what nåma and rúpa really are when we know through direct experience their different characteristics as they appear one at a time through eyes, ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind.
Nåma and rúpa arise and fall away so rapidly that we do not realize that there are different nåma-units and different rúpa-units. For example, only perceiving sound is a moment which is different from liking or disliking the sound. We are often inclined to find our like or our dislike with regard to the object we experience so important that we do not notice the characteristic of the nåma or rúpa which appears at that moment. Thus we cannot see things as they are; we take like or dislike for self. Like and dislike are only nåmas arising because of conditions; like and dislike are due to one's accumulations. There are conditions for each citta; there is no self who can let any citta arise at this or at that moment.
We do not only take mental phenomena for self, we take the body for self as well. However, the body consists of nothing else but different rúpa-elements which arise and fall away. There are many different kinds of rúpa. The rúpas which can be directly experienced through the bodysense are: hardness or softness, heat, cold, motion and pressure. These rúpas can be directly experienced through the bodysense, there is no need to think about them or to name them. The direct understanding of rúpas whenever they appear is the only way to know that they are different rúpas and that we should not take them for self.
Different characteristics of nåma and rúpa can be known one at a time as they appear through the five sense-doors and through the mind-door. So long as we do not know them as they are we are bound to take them for self. We are not used to being aware of the phenomena of our life; for example, we are not used to being aware of seeing. Seeing is a nåma which experiences only what appears through the eyesense, that is, visible object. This type of nåma is real and thus it can be experienced. Before one thinks about what one has seen, there must be the experience of what appears through the eyes, of visible object. We are used to paying attention only to the thing or the person we think about after there has been seeing and thus we are ignorant of the nåma which only experiences visible object, the nåma which sees. The nåma which sees is different from the types of nåma which like or dislike the object or which think about it. If one does not know seeing as it is, one is bound to take it for self. It is the same with hearing, which is just the perceiving of sound. When hearing arises we can learn to be aware of its characteristic; it can be known that it is nåma, a reality which just perceives sound through the ears. We can gradually become familiar with the characteristic of hearing and then we will know that it is different from thinking and from other types of nåma. We will learn that it is different from rúpa. Thus we will be less inclined to take it for self.
We can be aware of only one characteristic of nåma or rúpa at a time. For example, when we hear, there are both hearing and sound, but we cannot be aware of hearing and sound at the same time, since each citta experiences only one object at a time. There can be awareness of sound at one moment and of hearing at another moment, and thus we will gradually learn that their characteristics are different. 
Only if we learn to be aware of the nåma or rúpa which appears at the present moment will we see things as they are. Thinking about nåma and rúpa, reminding ourselves of them or naming realities ``nåma'' and ``rúpa'' is still not the direct experience of reality. If we only think of nåma and rúpa and do not learn to experience their characteristics, we will continue to cling to them and we will not become detached from the idea of self. It is beyond control which characteristic presents itself at a particular moment. We cannot change the reality which has appeared already. We should not think that there should be awareness of hearing first and after that of thinking about what we heard. Different realities will appear at different moments and there is no particular sequence we should follow when we are mindful of realities.
In the beginning we are not able to know the arising and falling away of nåma and rúpa through direct experience. We should just learn to be aware of whatever characteristic of nåma or rúpa presents itself. When, for example, smelling appears, we cannot help smelling. At that moment we can learn to be aware of the characteristic of smelling, without making any special effort. There is no need to think about it or to remind ourselves that it is smelling, or that it is nåma.
It is essential to realize that awareness is a type of nåma as well, which can only arise when there are the right conditions. There is no self who is aware or who can let awareness arise at will. Right understanding of the development of vipassanå is a condition for the arising of awareness. After a moment of awareness there will be a long time without awareness, or there will be moments when we are only thinking about nåma and rúpa. In the beginning there cannot be a great deal of awareness, but even a short moment of right awareness is beneficial, because paņņå developed through the direct experience of realities is of a higher degree than the paņņå developed through thinking about realities or the paņņå developed in samatha. Vipassanå is kusala kamma of a very high degree, because vipassanå leads to detachment from the concept of self and eventually to the eradication of all defilements. If there is less lobha, dosa and moha, it is for the happiness of the whole world as well.
In the Gradual Sayings (Book of the Nines, Ch II, § 10, Velåma) we read that the Buddha, while he was dwelling near Såvatthí, at Jeta Grove, in Anåthapiųčika's Park, spoke to Anåthapiųčika about different degrees of wholesome deeds which bring their fruits accordingly. Giving gifts to the Buddha and the Order of monks, and taking one's refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha are deeds which are of a high degree of kusala, but there are other ways of kusala which are of still higher degrees.
We read that the Buddha said:

... though with pious heart he took refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, greater would have been the fruit thereof, had he with pious heart undertaken to keep the precepts: abstention from taking life, from taking what is not given, from carnal lusts, from lying and from intoxicating liquor, the cause of sloth.
...though with pious heart he undertook to keep these precepts, greater would have been the fruit thereof, had he made become a mere passing fragrance of loving-kindness.
...though he made become just the fragrance of loving-kindness, greater would have been the fruit thereof, had he made become, just for a finger-snap, the perception of impermanence.

The perception of impermanence is developed when there is a moment of right awareness of nåma or rúpa. One may be surprised that the perception of impermanence is more fruitful than other kinds of wholesome deeds. It is right understanding which realizes the impermanence of nåma and rúpa and this kind of understanding can change our life. It can eventually eradicate our clinging, aversion and ignorance. The time will come when we have to leave this world because of old age, sickness or accident. Is it not better to take leave of the world with understanding of what things are than to part from the world with aversion and fear?



Chapter 6


The Buddha

In the Buddhist temples of Thailand we see people paying respect in front of the Buddha statue by kneeling and touching the floor three times with their hands and head. Those who have just arrived in Thailand may wonder whether this way of paying respect is a form of prayer or whether it has another meaning. Buddhists in Thailand express in this way their confidence in the ``Three Gems'': the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. They take their refuge in the ``Three Gems''.
The first Gem is the Buddha. When people take their refuge in the Buddha, they say the following words in Påli: ``Buddha˙ saraųa˙ gacchåmi'', which means, ``I go for refuge to the Buddha''. What is the meaning of the word ``Buddha''? The Illustrator of Ultimate Meaning (the ``Paramatthajotikå'', a commentary to the ``Minor Readings'', Khuddaka Nikåya) explains, in the commentary to the ``Three Refuges'', the meaning of the word ``Buddha'':

... and this is said, ``Buddha'': in what sense buddha? He is the discoverer (bujjhitå) of the Truths, thus he is enlightened (buddha). He is the enlightener (bodhetå) of the generation, thus he is enlightened. He is enlightened by omniscience, enlightened by seeing all, enlightened without being led by others... he is quite without defilement, thus he is enlightened; he has travelled by the Path that goes in only one way, thus he is enlightened; he alone discovered the peerless complete enlightenment, thus he is enlightened; ... Buddha: this is not a name made by a mother, made by a father... this (name) ``Buddha'', which signifies final liberation, is a realistic description of Enlightened Ones, Blessed Ones, together with their obtainment of omniscient knowledge at the root of an enlightenment (tree).

The Buddha is the discoverer of the truth. What is the truth the Buddha discovered all by himself? ``He is enlightened by omniscience, enlightened by seeing all...'' the commentary to the Paramatthajotikå says. He had developed the wisdom to see and to experience the truth of all things. Everything in life is impermanent and thus it is unsatisfactory. People suffer from old age, sickness and death. In spite of this truth people still cling to the things in and around themselves. Thus they are not able to see reality. The Buddha understood through direct experience that all phenomena which arise fall away immediately. He did not cling to anything at all. 
For us it is difficult to experience the truth of impermanence. Nåma and rúpa arise and fall away all the time, but one cannot have direct understanding of impermanence if one's wisdom is not developed. It is difficult to be aware often of realities when they appear and to realize what they are: only nåma and rúpa, phenomena which are impermanent and not self. The more we realize how difficult it is to see things as they are, the more we understand that the Buddha's wisdom must have been of the highest degree.
The Buddha taught that everything in life is dukkha. Dukkha literally means pain, misery or suffering. However, the experience of the truth of dukkha is much deeper than a feeling of sorrow or contemplation about suffering. It is the direct understanding of the impermanence of the nåmas and rúpas in our life and the realization that none of these phenomena is true happiness. Some people may think that pondering over this truth is already the experience of the truth of dukkha. However, one does not have the real understanding of the truth if one merely thinks about it. When paņņå has been developed to the degree that the arising and falling away of nåma and rúpa are directly understood, one will come to realize the truth of dukkha. Then one will gradually learn to be less attached to nåma and rúpa. 
In the Greater Discourse of a Full Moon (Middle Length Sayings III, no. 109) we read that the Buddha, while he was staying near Såvatthí, in the palace of Migåra's mother, in the Eastern Monastery, asked the monks: 

``What do you think about this, monks? Is material shape permanent or impermanent?''
``Impermanent, revered sir.''
``But is what is impermanent painful or is it pleasant?''
``Painful, revered sir.''
``And is it right to regard that which is impermanent, suffering, liable to change, as, `This is mine, this am I, this is myself'?''
``No, revered sir.''

The Buddha asked the same question about mental phenomena. 
Everything in our life is impermanent. Also what we call happiness is impermanent-it is only a mental phenomenon which arises and then falls away immediately. How can that which arises and falls away as soon as it has arisen be real happiness? Everything in life, even happiness, is therefore dukkha or unsatisfactory. What arises and falls away should not be taken for self; everything is anattå or ``non-self''. Impermanence, dukkha and anattå are three aspects of the truth, the truth of all realities within ourselves and around ourselves. It may take us a long time before we can experience things as they really are. The only way to develop direct understanding of the truth is being aware of the nåma and rúpa which appear, such as, for example, seeing, hearing or thinking at this moment. 
The Buddha was always mindful and clearly conscious. He did not have ignorance of any reality. When we realize how difficult mindfulness is we deeply respect the great wisdom of the Buddha. The Buddha is called the ``Awakened One'', because he is awakened to the truth. We read in the Discourse with Sela (Middle Length Sayings II, no. 92) that the Buddha said to Sela:

``What is to be known is known by me, and to be developed is developed, what is to be got rid of has been got rid of-therefore, brahman, am I awake.''

The Buddha had, by his enlightenment, attained the greatest purity. He had completely eradicated all defilements. The Buddha attained enlightenment during his life in this world. He taught others to develop in their daily lives the wisdom which can completely eradicate defilements and all latent tendencies. The more we know about our own defilements, including the more subtle defilements, and the more we see how deeply rooted the clinging to the concept of self is, the more will we realize the high degree of the Buddha's purity.
The Buddha was full of compassion for everybody. The fact that the Buddha was free from defilements did not mean that he wanted to dissociate himself from the world. On the contrary, he wanted to help all beings who still had defilements to find the Path leading to true understanding. People are inclined to think that Buddhism makes people neglectful of their duties towards others and that it makes them self-centered. This is not so. Buddhism enables one more fully to perform one's duties and to serve other people in a more unselfish way.
The Buddha attained enlightenment for the happiness of the world. In the Gradual Sayings (Book of the Ones, Ch XIII) we read that the Buddha said to the monks:

Monks, there is one person whose birth into the world is for the welfare of many folk, for the happiness of many folk; who is born out of compassion for the world, for the profit, welfare and happiness of devas and mankind. Who is that one person? It is a Tathågata who is arahat, a fully Enlightened One. This, monks, is that one person.

The more one understands the Buddha's teachings, the more one is impressed by his compassion for everybody. The Buddha knew what it meant to be free from all sorrow. Therefore he helped other beings to attain this freedom as well. One can help people by kindness, by generosity, and in many other ways. The most precious thing one can give others is to show them the way to true peace. The Buddha proved his great compassion to people by teaching them Dhamma.
When Buddhists pay respect to the Buddha statue they do not pray to a Buddha in heaven, since the Buddha passed away completely. Buddhists pay respect to the Buddha statue because they think with deep reverence and gratefulness of the Buddha's virtues: of his wisdom, his purity and his compassion. When we speak of virtues we think of good qualities in someone's character. There are many degrees of good qualities however. When the wisdom of him who follows the eightfold Path is developed to such an extent that he can attain enlightenment, then his way of life will have become purer and his compassion for others deeper. Wisdom is not only theoretical knowledge of the truth, but realizing the truth in one's life as well. The virtues of the Buddha were developed to such degree that he not only attained enlightenment without the help of a teacher, but was also able to teach the truth to others, so that by following the right Path they could attain enlightenment. 
There were other Buddhas before the Buddha Gotama. All Buddhas find the truth by themselves, without being led by others. However, there are two different kinds of Buddhas: the ``Sammåsambuddha'', that is, a ``Universal Buddha'' or ``Perfectly Enlightened One'', and the ``Pacceka Buddha'' or ``Silent Buddha''. The Sammåsambuddha has found the truth and is able to teach others as well the way to enlightenment. The Pacceka Buddha has not accumulated virtues to the same extent as the Sammåsambuddha and thus he is not as qualified in teaching others as the Sammåsambuddha. The Buddha Gotama was a Sammåsambuddha. There cannot be more than one Sammåsambuddha in a Buddha era; neither can there be in that era Pacceka Buddhas. The Buddha era in which we are living will be terminated when the Buddha's teachings have disappeared completely. The Buddha foretold that the further one is away from the time he lived, the more his teaching will be misinterpreted and corrupted. His teachings will disappear completely and then there will be a next Buddha, and so the next Buddha era. The next Buddha will discover the truth again and he will teach other beings the way to enlightenment.
Buddhists take their refuge in the Buddha. What does the word ``refuge'' mean? The Paramatthajotikå commentary speaks about the meaning of the word ``refuge'':

... When people have gone for refuge, then by that very going for refuge it combats, dispels, carries off, and stops their fear, anguish, suffering, (risk of) unhappy destination (on rebirth), and defilement... The going for refuge is the arising of cognizance with confidence therein and giving preponderance thereto, from which defilement is eliminated and eradicated, and which occurs in the mode of taking that as the highest value...
Going for refuge to the Buddha does not mean that the Buddha can eradicate people's defilements. We read in the Mahå-Parinibbåna-sutta (Dialogues of the Buddha II, no. 73) that, before his passing away, the Buddha said to Ånanda:

Now I am frail, Ånanda, old, aged, far gone in years. This is my eightieth year and my life is spent... Therefore, Ånanda, be an island to yourself, a refuge to yourself, seeking no external refuge; with Dhamma as your island, Dhamma as your refuge, seeking no other refuge.

The Buddha then explained that one takes one's refuge in the Dhamma by developing the ``four Applications of Mindfulness'', that is, being mindful of nåma and rúpa in order to develop right understanding of them. This is the eightfold Path which leads to enlightenment. One can depend only on oneself in following this Path, not on anyone else. 
The Buddha said that the Dhamma and the Vinaya would be his successor. Today the Buddha is no longer with us, but we take our refuge in the Buddha when we have confidence in his teachings and we consider it the most important thing in life to practise what he taught.



Chapter 7


The Dhamma

The second of the Three Gems Buddhists take their refuge in is the Dhamma. When they take their refuge in the Dhamma they say: ``Dhamma˙ saraųa˙ gacchåmi'', which means, ``I go for refuge to the Dhamma.''
What does the word ``dhamma'' mean? Most people think that dhamma only means doctrine, but the word ``dhamma'' has several more meanings. Dhamma means everything which is real, no matter whether it is good or bad. Dhamma comprises, for example, seeing, sound, greed and honesty. We cannot take our refuge in every dhamma; for instance we cannot take our refuge in greed or hate.
Can we take refuge in our good deeds? The effect of a good deed is never lost, since each good deed will bring its fruit accordingly. In the Kindred Sayings (I, Sagåthå-vagga, Ch I, part 8, Slaughter Suttas, § 5) we read that a deva (divine being) asks the Buddha how a man should live so that he does not have to fear life in another world. The Buddha answered:

Let him but rightly set both speech and mind.
And by the body work no evil things.
If in a house well stored with goods he dwell,
Let him have faith, be gentle, share his goods
With others, and be affable of speech.
In these four qualities if he persist,
He need not fear life in another world.

A good deed can cause a happy rebirth such as birth in the human plane of existence, or in a heavenly plane, and in that case one need not fear life in another world. However, even a heavenly plane is not a permanent refuge. Life in a heavenly plane may last very long, but it is not permanent. There may be rebirth in unhappy planes after one's lifespan in a happy plane is terminated, depending on which of one's accumulated good and bad deeds, kusala kamma and akusala kamma, will produce result. Each deed will bring its own result: a wholesome deed will bring a pleasant result and an unwholesome deed will bring an unpleasant result. Some deeds may produce a result in this life, other deeds may produce result in a future life. The accumulated unwholesome and wholesome deeds may cause births in different planes of existence at different times. In the Kindred Sayings (I, Sagåthå-vagga, Ch III, Kosala, Part 2, § 10, Childless) we read about someone who gave alms to a Pacceka Buddha. Because of this good deed he was reborn in heaven seven times and after that in the human plane, which is also kusala vipåka. However, he killed his nephew because he wanted his brother's fortune. This ill deed caused him to be reborn in hell. Thus he received the results of kusala kamma and of akusala kamma at different times.
So long as all defilements and latent tendencies have not been eradicated, there will be rebirth in different planes of existence. Even those who are reborn in heavenly planes still have defilements and latent tendencies. Birth is sorrow, no matter in what plane; birth will be followed by death. We read in the Kindred Sayings (II, Nidåna-vagga, Ch XV, part 1, § 3, Tears) that the Buddha, while he was in the Jeta Grove, near Såvatthí, said to the monks:

Incalculable is the beginning, monks, of this faring on. The earliest point is not revealed of the running on, faring on, of beings cloaked in ignorance, tied to craving.
As to that, what do you think, monks? Which is greater,-- the flood of tears shed by you crying and weeping as you fare on, run on this long while, united as you have been with the undesirable, separated as you have been from the desirable, or the waters in the four seas?
... For many a long day, monks, have you experienced the death of mother, of son, of daughter, have you experienced the ruin of kinsfolk, of wealth, the calamity of disease. Greater is the flood of tears shed by you crying and weeping over one and all of these, as you fare on, run on this many a long day, united with the undesirable, separated from the desirable, than are the waters in the four seas.

Only when all defilements have been eradicated will there be no cause any more which can produce a next life; that is the end of rebirth , and that means the end of all sorrow. Nibbåna is the end of rebirth because nibbåna is the end of defilements . Therefore one can truly take one's refuge in nibbåna. In the suttas, nibbåna is called ``the deathless''. We read in the Kindred Sayings (V, Mahå-vagga, Book I, Kindred Sayings on the Way, I, Ignorance, § 7) that, when the Buddha was at Såvatthí, a monk said to him:

`` `The deathless! The deathless!', lord, is the saying. Pray, lord, what is the deathless, and what the way to the deathless?''
``That which is the destruction of greed, the destruction of hatred, the destruction of ignorance, monk-that is called `the deathless'. This same ariyan eightfold way is the way to the deathless.''

Nibbåna is the dhamma we can take our refuge in, nibbåna is included in the second Gem. Nibbåna is a Gem of the highest value, because there is nothing to be preferred to complete freedom from all sorrow, from birth, old age and death. Nibbåna is real. If one has not yet attained enlightenment, one has not experienced nibbåna. But if one follows the right Path one may realize nibbåna, even during this life.
Nibbåna is the deathless, it is the end of the cycle of birth and death. People may think that is not very desirable not to be born again. It does not make much sense to speculate about nibbåna; if we have not attained enlightenment we cannot imagine what nibbåna is like. At the present time we can experience our defilements; we can experience the sorrow which is caused in the world by greed, hatred and ignorance. We read in the Kindred Sayings (I, Sagåthå-vagga, Ch III, Kosala, Part 3, § 3, the World) that, when the Buddha was at Såvatthí, King Pasenadi asked him:

``How many kinds of things, Lord, that happen in the world, make for trouble, for suffering, for distress?''
``Three things, sire, happen of that nature. 
What are the three?
Greed, hatred and ignorance:-- these three make for trouble, for suffering, for distress.''

Who does not want to be free from suffering, caused by greed hatred and ignorance? Those who want to become free from all defilements take refuge in nibbåna. What is the Path leading to nibbåna? Nibbåna cannot be attained merely by wishing for it. Can people attain nibbåna by doing good deeds? Even when one performs good deeds there can still be the idea of self. When one does good deeds but there is no development of right understanding of realities, the belief in a self and other defilements cannot be eradicated. Thus, good deeds alone, without right understanding, cannot lead to nibbåna. Only vipassanå can lead to the attainment of nibbåna, to the eradication of defilements.
On may wonder whether it is necessary, in addition to developing vipassanå, to do other good deeds. There is no self who can choose to perform a particular kind of kusala. The Buddha encouraged us to perform all kinds of kusala for which there is an opportunity. Sometimes there is an opportunity for dåna, sometimes for síla, at other times for samatha or for vipassanå. Through the development of vipassanå we will come to know our defilements, even the more subtle ones. Then we will see the danger of defilements more clearly and realize the benefit of developing the Path leading to their eradication. If we observe the precepts or do other kinds of good deeds with mindfulness of nåma and rúpa, we will learn that there is no self who performs kusala and thus kusala will be purer. However, vipassanå will not immediately transform one's character. It is most important to develop right understanding of both kusala and akusala as only conditioned realities, as non-self. 
The development of vipassanå takes many lives, because ignorance is deeply accumulated. Most of the time we are ignorant and forgetful of the nåma and rúpa which appear now through one of the five senses or through the mind-door. We are used to thinking of realities which have fallen away already a long time ago or of those which may present themselves in the future. We should not expect to learn awareness in one day or even within one year. We cannot tell how much progress is made each day, because wisdom develops very gradually. 
We read in the Kindred Sayings (III, Khandhå-vagga, Middle Fifty, Part 5, § 101, Adze-handle) that the Buddha, when he was at Såvatthí, said to the monks:

By knowing, monks, by seeing is, I declare, the destruction of the åsavas , not by not knowing, by not seeing...
Suppose, monks, in a monk who lives neglectful of self-training there should arise this wish: ''O that my heart were freed from the åsavas without grasping.'' Yet for all that his heart is not freed from the åsavas. What is the cause of that?
It must be said that it is his neglect of self-training. Self-training in what? In the four applications of mindfulness... in the ariyan eightfold Path.
... in the monk who dwells attentive to self-training there would not arise such a wish as this: ``O that my heart were freed from the åsavas without grasping''; and yet his heart is freed from them. What is the cause of that?
It must be said it is his attention to self-training... Just as if, monks, when a carpenter or carpenter's apprentice looks upon his adze-handle and sees thereon his thumb-mark and his finger-marks he does not thereby know: ''So and so much of my adze-handle has been worn away today, so much yesterday, so much at other times.'' But he knows the wearing away of it just by its wearing away.
Even so monks, the monk who dwells attentive to self-training has not this knowledge: ``So and so much of the åsavas has been worn away today, so much yesterday, so much at other times.`` But he knows the wearing away of them just by their wearing away.

When wisdom is highly developed, nibbåna can be realized. There are four stages of enlightenment and at each stage nibbåna is experienced and defilements are progressively eradicated. Defilements are so deeply rooted that they can only be eradicated stage by stage. At the first stage the wrong view of self is eradicated, but there are still attachment, aversion and ignorance. Only at the last stage of enlightenment, the stage of the arahat, are all defilements and latent tendencies eradicated completely. When one has attained the stage of the arahat there will be no more rebirth.
The citta which experiences nibbåna is a ``supramundane'' or lokuttara citta. There are two types of citta for each of the four stages of enlightenment: lokuttara kusala citta and its result, the ``fruition-consciousness''; thus there are eight types of lokuttara citta. Nibbåna and the eight types of lokuttara citta which experience nibbåna are included in the second Gem, the Dhamma to which one goes for refuge. When we take our refuge in the second Gem, we consider it the goal of our life to develop the wisdom which can eventually eradicate all defilements. 
There is still another Dhamma included in the second Gem, namely the Dhamma in the sense of the Buddha's teachings. We can take our refuge in the Buddha's teachings. The teachings can lead people to the truth if they study them with right understanding and if they practise according to what is taught. We should study the whole of the Buddha's teachings. If one studies only a few suttas one will not clearly understand what the Buddha taught. Many times a sutta merely alludes to things which are explained in detail in other parts of the Tipiėaka, the ``three Collections'' of the scriptures. It is useful to study the commentaries to the Tipiėaka as well, because they explain the Buddha's teachings. The teachings are our guide since the Buddha passed away.
We read in the Discourse to Gopaka-Moggallåna (Middle Length Sayings III, no. 108) that after the Buddha's passing away a brahman asked Ånanda what the cause was of the unity of the monks. He said:

`