Contact means “it touches”. It has touching as its salient characteristic, impact as its function, “coinciding” (of the physical base, object and consciousness) as its manifestation, and the object which has entered the avenue (of awareness) as proximate causeSee Dhammasangaṇi (the first book of the Abhidhamma), par 2. This book has been translated by the Pāli Text Society under the title of Buddhist Psychological Ethics..

This situation occurs: that when there is eye, your reverences, when there is visible object, when there is visual consciousness, one will recognise the manifestation of sensory impingement (phassa)….

Once the venerable Ānanda was staying at Kosambī in Ghosita Park. Then the housefather Ghosita came to see the venerable Ānanda. Seated at one side he said this to the venerable Ānanda: '“Diversity in elements! Diversity in elements!” is the saying, my lord Ānanda. Pray, sir, how far has diversity in elements been spoken of by the Exalted One?' 'When the elements of eye and objects that are pleasing and eye-consciousness occur together, housefather, owing to the pleasurable contact there arises pleasant feeling. When the elements of eye, objects that are displeasing and eye-consciousness occur together, owing to the unpleasant contact resulting there arises painful feeling. When the elements of eye, objects that are of indifferent effect and eye-consciousness occur together, owing to neutral contact resulting, there arises feeling that is neutral. So when the elements of ear…nose…tongue… body…when the elements of mind and objects that are pleasurable and mindconsciousness occur together. When mind and objects that are displeasing…or mind and objects that are of indifferent effect occur together, owing to the contact resulting, whether it be pleasing, displeasing or neutral, there arises feeling that is pleasing, displeasing or neutral. Thus far, housefather, diversity in elements has been spoken of by the Exalted One.

…and the king, being lord, expert, and master, eats whatever he likes, even so the mere testing of the food by the cook is like the partial enjoyment of the object by the remaining dhammas (the citta and the other cetasikas), and as the cook tests a portion of the food, so the remaining dhammas enjoy a portion of the object, and as the king, being lord, expert and master, eats the meal according to his pleasure, so feeling, being lord, expert and master, enjoys the taste of the object, and therefore it is said that enjoyment or experience is its function.

'abundance of confidence (saddhā), purity of views, seeing advantage in kusala, should be understood as factors of this consciousness in making it accompanied by joy'.

…It has the characteristic of notingIn Pāli: sañjānāti, cognizing well. and the function of recognizing what has been previously noted. There is no such thing as perception in the four planes of existence without the characteristic of noting. All perceptions have the characteristic of noting. Of them, that perceiving which knows by specialized knowledge has the function of recognizing what has been noted previously. We may see this procedure when the carpenter recognizes a piece of wood which he has marked by specialized knowledge…

Perception has the characteristic of perceiving by an act of general inclusion, and the function of making marks as a condition for repeated perception (for recognizing or remembering)I am using the translation of the Ven. Nyanaponika, Abhidhamma Studies, page 69, BPS, Kandy, 1976, as when woodcutters 'perceive' logs and so forth. Its manifestation is the action of interpreting by means of the sign as apprehended, as in the case of blind persons who 'see' an elephantHere I use the English translation of the Visuddhimagga, XIV, 130, instead of the English text of the Atthasālinī. The commentary refers to a story in the “Udāna” (Verses of Uplift, Minor Anthologies, 68-69) about blind people who touch different parts of an elephant. Each of them interprets in his own way what an elephant is like: the person who touches the head believes that the elephant is like a pot, since he remembers what a pot is like; the person who touches the tusks believes that it is like a ploughshare, and so on. Thus, there is recognizing of a sign or label which was made before.. Or, it has briefness as manifestation, like lightning, owing to its inability to penetrate the object. Its proximate cause is whatever object has appeared, like the perception which arises in young deer mistaking scarecrows for men.

'briefness, like lightning, owing to its inability to penetrate the object'.

“Monks, perceptions are six: perceptions of visible objects, sounds, smells, tastes, touches and ideas.”

Monks, there are these four perversions of perception (saññā), four perversions of thought (citta), four perversions of view (diṭṭhi). What four? To hold that in the impermanent there is permanence, is a perversion of perception, thought and view. To hold that in dukkha there is not-dukkha, is a perversion of perception, thought and view. To hold that in the not-self there is self, is a perversion of perception, thought and view. To hold that in the foul there is the fair, is a perversion of perception, thought and view. These are the four perversions of perception, thought and view…

…Visual consciousness, your reverences, arises because of eye and visual object; the meeting of the three is sensory impingement (phassa); feelings are because of sensory impingement; what one feels one perceives; what one perceives one reasons about; what one reasons about obsesses one; what obsesses one is the origin of the number of perceptions and obsessions which assail a man in regard to visual object cognisable by the eye, past, future, present….

…the perception here is neither perception, since it is incapable of performing the decisive function of perception, nor yet non-perception, since it is present in a subtle state as a residual formation, thus it is 'neither perception nor non-perception… 'Abhidhamma in Daily Life Chapter 22

Monks, these ten ideas, if made to grow and made much of, are of great fruit, of great profit for plunging into the deathless, for ending up in the deathless. What ten ideas? The idea of the foul, of death, of repulsiveness in food, of distaste for all the world, the idea of impermanence, of dukkha in impermanence, of not-self in dukkha, the idea of abandoning, of fading, of ending. These ten ideas, monks, if made to grow…are of great profit for plunging into the deathless, for ending up in the deathless.

…There is no such thing as volition in the four planes of existence without the characteristic of coordinating; all volition has it. But the function of 'willing' is only in moral (kusala) and immoral (akusala) states…It has directing as manifestation. It arises directing associated states, like the chief disciple, the chief carpenter, etc. who fulfil their own and others' duties.

“But when there is no rupture among others, the offence does not amount to a complete course; it does so only when there is a rupture.”

Monks, taking life, when pursued, practised, increased, brings one to hell, to an animal's womb, to the Peta realmPeta is translated as 'ghost'. It is a being of an unhappy plane.; what is the very trifling result of taking life is the shortening of a man's life. Monks, stealing, when pursued…, brings one to hell…; the very trifling result is a man's loss of wealth. Monks, fleshly lusts when pursued…, bring one to hell…; the very trifling result is a man's rivalry and hatred. Monks, lying when pursued…, brings one to hell…; the very trifling result is the slandering and false-speaking for a man. Monks, backbiting, when pursued…, brings one to hell…; the very trifling result is the breaking up of a man's friendships. Monks, harsh speech, when pursued…, brings one to hell…; the very trifling result is an unpleasant noise for a man. Monks, frivolous talk, when pursued…, brings one to hell… ; the very trifling result is unacceptable speech for a man. Monks, drinking strong drink, when pursued, practised, increased, brings one to hell, to an animal's womb, to the Peta realm; what is the very trifling result of drinking strong drink is madness for a man.

Herein, monks, a noble disciple gives up the taking of life and abstains from it. By abstaining from the taking of life, the noble disciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, gives to them freedom from hostility, and freedom from oppression. By giving to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility and oppression, he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom from fear, hostility and oppression… Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up the taking of what is not given… …gives up sexual misconduct…. …gives up wrong speech…. …gives up intoxicating drinks and drugs causing heedlessness, and abstains from them. By abstaining from intoxicating drinks and drugs, the noble disciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, freedom from hostility and freedom from oppression. By giving to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility and oppression, he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom from fear, freedom from hostility and freedom from oppression…

“This is not the first time Devadatta has tried to murder me and has not even frightened me. He did the same before.”

“You were greedy before, monk, as you are now; and in olden days for your greed you had your head cleft with a sword.”

“This is not the first time, monks, that this man has been passionate. He was just the same before.”

This concentration, known as one-pointedness of mind, has non-scattering (of itself) or non-distraction (of associated states) as characteristic, the welding together of the coexistent states as function, as water kneads bath-powder into a paste, and peace of mind or knowledge as manifestation. For it has been said: 'He who is concentrated knows, sees according to the truth.' It is distinguished by having ease (sukha) (usually) as proximate causePleasant feeling, sukha, is a jhāna-factor arising only in four stages of rūpa-jhāna. It supports samādhi in focusing on the meditation subject. In the highest stage of rūpa-jhāna pleasant feeling is abandoned and indifferent feeling accompanies the jhāna-citta instead.. Like the steadiness of a lamp in the absence of wind, so should steadfastness of mind be understood.

Herein, monks, the feelings which arise in a monk are evident to him, the feelings which abide with him are evident to him, the feelings which come to an end in him are evident to him. The perceptions which arise in him…the trains of thought which arise in him, which abide with him, which come to an end in him are evident to him. This monks, is called 'the making-concentration-to-become which conduces to mindfulness and well-awareness'.

And what sort of making-concentration-to-become, if developed and made much of, conduces to the destruction of the āsavas? Herein a monk dwells observing the rise and fall in the five khandhas of grasping, thus: Such is rūpa, such is the arising of rūpa, such its vanishing. Such is feeling …such is perception …such are the activities …Such is consciousness, such is the arising of consciousness, such the vanishing of consciousness. This, monks, is called 'the making-concentration-to-become which conduces to the destruction of the āsavas'. These are the four forms of it. Moreover, in this connection I thus spoke in 'The Chapter on the Goal' in (the sutta called) 'The Questions of Puṇṇaka':

…it watches over those states (the accompanying dhammas) only in the moment of (their and its) existence, as water over lotuses, etc. And although it watches over them, arisen as its own property, as a nurse over the infant, life goes on only by being bound up with these states ( accompanying dhammas) that have gone on, as the pilot on the boat. Beyond the dissolution moment it does not go on, owing to the non-being both of itself and of the states which should have been kept going. At the dissolution moment it does not maintain them, owing to its own destruction, as the spent oil in the wick cannot maintain the flame of the lamp. Its effective power is as its duration.

…It has the characteristic of driving associated states towards the object, the function of joining (yoking) associated states to the object, the manifestation of facing the object. It is included in the saṅkhārakkhandha, and should be regarded as the charioteer of associated states because it regulates the object.

…Herein, applied thinking (vitakkama) is applied thought (vitakka); hitting upon, is what is meant. It has the characteristic of directing the mind onto an object (mounting the mind on its object). Its function is to strike at and thresh—for the meditatorThe Visuddhimagga deals with vitakka in the section on samatha. The meditator is someone who cultivates samatha. is said, in virtue of it, to have the object touched and struck at by applied thought. It is manifested as the leading of the mind onto an object…

…“This thought of sense-pleasures has arisen in me, but it conduces to self-hurt and it conduces to the hurt of others and it conduces to the hurt of both, it is destructive of intuitive wisdom, associated with distress, not conducive to nibbāna.” But while I was reflecting, “It conduces to self-hurt”, it subsided; and while I was reflecting, “It conduces to the hurt of others”, it subsided; and while I was reflecting, “It is destructive of intuitive wisdom, it is associated with distress, it is not conducive to nibbāna”, it subsided. So I, monks, kept on getting rid of the thought of sense-pleasures as it constantly arose, I kept on driving it out, I kept on making an end of it…

…Monks, according to whatever a monk ponders and reflects on much, his mind in consequence gets a bias that way. Monks, if a monk ponder and reflect much on thought of sense-pleasures he ejects thought of renunciation; if he makes much of the thought of sense-pleasures, his mind inclines to the thought of sense-pleasures. Monks, if a monk ponder and reflect much on the thought of malevolence…he ejects the thought of non-malevolence… his mind inclines to the thought of malevolence. Monks, if a monk ponder and reflect much on the thought of harming, he ejects the thought of non-harming; if he makes much of the thought of harming, his mind inclines to the thought of harming…

…Monks, if a monk ponder and reflect much on the thought of renunciation he ejects the thought of sense-pleasures; if he makes much of the thought of renunciation, his mind inclines to the thought of renunciation. Monks, if a monk ponder and reflect much on the thought of non-malevolence he ejects the thought of malevolence… Monks, if a monk ponder and reflect much on the thought of non-harming, he ejects the thought of harming; if he makes much of the thought of non-harming his mind inclines to the thought of non-harming…

…Sustained thinking (vicaraṇa) is sustained thought (vicāra); continued sustenance (anusañcaraṇa), is what is meant. It has the characteristic of continued pressure on (occupation with) the object. Its function is to keep conascent (mental) states (occupied) with that. It is manifested as keeping consciousness anchored (on that object).

…Applied thought (vitakka) is the first compact of the mind in the sense that it is both gross and inceptive, like the striking of a bell. Sustained thought (vicāra) is the act of keeping the mind anchored, in the sense that it is subtle with the individual essence of continued pressure, like the ringing of the bell…

Monks, think not evil, unprofitable thoughts, such as: thoughts of lust, thoughts of hatred, thoughts of delusion. Why do I say so? Because, monks, these thoughts are not concerned with profit, they are not the rudiments of the holy life, they conduce not to revulsion, to dispassion, to cessation, to tranquillity, to full understanding, to the perfect wisdom, they conduce not to nibbāna. When you do think, monks, you should think thus: This is dukkha. This is the arising of dukkha. This is the ceasing of dukkha. This is the practice that leads to the ceasing of dukkha. Why do I say this? Because, monks, these thoughts are concerned with profit, they are rudiments of the holy life…they conduce to nibbāna. Wherefore an effort must be made to realize: This is dukkha. This is the arising of dukkha. This is the ceasing of dukkha. This is the practice that leads to the ceasing of dukkha.

“ the act of resolving should be understood as the act of being convinced about an object”.

From its overcoming idleness it is a controlling faculty in the sense of predominance …Its characteristic is strengthening, and grasp or support. As an old house stands when strengthened by new pillars, so the aspirant (meditator), when strengthened by energy, does not fall off or deteriorate as to moral states. Thus should the characteristic of strengthening be understood…

…thus energy does not allow associated states to recede, to retreat; it uplifts, supports them. Hence it has been said that energy has the characteristic of supporting.

In this case, monks, here we may have a certain goodly thorough-bred man who hears it said that in such and such a village or township is a woman or a man afflicted or dead. Thereat he is stirred, he feels agitation. Thus agitated he strictly applies himself. Thus applied he both realizes in his own person the supreme truth, and sees it by penetrating it with wisdom… Again, monks, here we may have a goodly thoroughbred man who does not hear it said that in such or such a village or township is a woman or a man afflicted or dead, but with his own eyes sees it. Thereupon he is stirred… Then again, monks, here we may have a certain goodly thorough-bred man who does not hear it said…nor yet with his own eyes sees a woman or man afflicted or dead, but his own kinsman or blood-relation is afflicted or dead. Thereupon he is stirred… Once more, monks, here we may have a goodly thoroughbred man who neither hears it said…nor yet with his own eyes sees… nor is his own kinsman or blood-relation afflicted or dead, but he himself is stricken with painful bodily feelings, grievous, sharp, racking, distracting, discomforting, that drain the life away. Thereat he is stirred, he feels agitation. Being so stirred he strictly applies himself. Thus applied he both realizes with his own person the supreme truth and sees it by penetrating it with wisdom…

And what, your reverences, is right endeavour? As to this, your reverences, a monk generates desire, endeavours, stirs up energy, exerts his mind and strives for the non-arising of evil unskilled states that have not arisen…for the getting rid of evil unskilled states that have arisen…for the arising of skilled states that have not arisen…for the maintenance, preservation, increase, maturity, development and completion of skilled states that have arisen. This, your reverences, is called right endeavour.

…It refreshes (pīṇayati, gladdens, satisfies), thus it is happiness (pīti)Pīṇayati is the causative of pīṇeti which means: to gladden, please, satisfy or invigorate.. It has the characteristic of satisfactionThe English translation uses here: endearment. (sampiyāna). Its function is to refresh the body and the mind; or its function is to pervade (thrill with rapture). It is manifested as elation…

Pīti takes an interest in the object which citta cognizes and which is also experienced by the accompanying cetasikas. It is satisfied, delighted with the object and it “refreshes” citta and the accompanying cetasikas.

And whenever the two are associated, happiness (pīti) is the contentedness at getting a desirable object, and bliss (sukha) is the actual experience of it when got. Where there is happiness there is bliss; but where there is bliss there is not necessarily happinessThis is in the case of the rūpāvacara cittas of the fourth stage of jhāna (of the five-fold system), which are accompanied by happy feeling, sukha, but not by pīti.. Happiness is included in the saṅkhārakkhandha; bliss is included in the vedanākkhandha. If a man exhausted in a desert saw or heard about a pond on the edge of a wood, he would have happiness; if he went into the wood's shade and used the water, he would have bliss…

…recollection of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, of sīla, of generosity, of devas, of peace (nibbāna), avoidance of rough (i.e. ill-tempered persons), serving meek persons, reflection on a Suttanta which instills confidence and a tendency to all this.

…Mahānāma, what time the ariyan disciple minds the Tathāgata, his heart is never overwhelmed by passion, never overwhelmed by hatred, never overwhelmed by delusion; then, verily, is the way of his heart made straight because of the Tathāgata. And with his heart's ways straightened, Mahānāma, the ariyan disciple becomes zealous of the goal, zealous of Dhamma, wins the joy that is linked to Dhamma; and of his joy zest (pīti) is born; when his mind is rapt in zest, his whole being becomes calm; calm in being, he experiences ease; and of him who dwells at ease the heart is composed. Mahānāma, of this ariyan disciple it is said: Among uneven folk he lives evenly; among troubled folk he lives untroubled; with the ear for Dhamma won, he makes become the ever minding of the Buddha.

…But it is of five kinds as minor happiness, momentary happiness, showering happiness, uplifting happiness, and pervading (rapturous) happiness. Herein, minor happiness is only able to raise the hairs on the body. Momentary happiness is like flashes of lightning at different moments. Showering happiness breaks over the body again and again like waves on the sea shore. Uplifting happiness can be powerful enough to levitate the body and make it spring into the air… But when pervading (rapturous happiness) arises, the whole body is completely pervaded, like a filled bladder, like a rock cavern invaded by a huge inundation (IV, 98).

And what, monks, is the zest that is carnal? There are five sensual elements, monks. What five? Objects cognizable by the eye, objects desirable, pleasant, delightful and dear, passion-fraught, inciting to lust…There are objects cognizable by the ear…the nose…the tongue…There are things cognizable by the body, tangibles, desirable, pleasant… These, monks, are the five sensual elements. Whatsoever zest, monks, arises owing to these five, that is called “zest that is carnal”.

…And what monks, is the zest that is still less carnal than the other? That zest which arises in a monk who has destroyed the āsavasāsavas or “cankers” are a group into which defilements are classified., who can look upon his heart as released from lust—that zest, monks, is called “the zest that is still less carnal than the other”.

Zeal (chanda) is a term for desire to act. So, that zeal has the characteristic of desire to act. Its function is scanning for an object. It is manifested as need for an object. That same (object) is its proximate cause. It should be regarded as the extending of the mental hand in the apprehending of an object.

…the wish-to-do (chanda) is the beginning; the discarding of the hindrances is the middle; absorption is the end…

Just as, monks, the dawn is the forerunner, the harbinger of the arising of the sun, so possession of desire (chanda) is the forerunner, the harbinger of the arising of the ariyan eightfold way. Of a monk who is possessed of desire, monks, it may be expected that he will cultivate the ariyan eightfold way, that he will make much of the ariyan eightfold way…

What on that occasion is dullness? The lack of knowledge, of vision, which is there on that occasion; the lack of coordination, of judgement, of enlightenmentThe Atthasālinī (II, 254), in its explanation of this passage of the Dhammasangaṇi, states about lack of enlightenment that it is: “not connecting them (things) with impermanence, dukkha and anattā”, and “perceiving in an unreal, distorted way”., of penetrationNo penetration of the four noble Truths.; the inability to comprehend, to grasp thoroughly; the inability to compare, to consider, to demonstrate; the folly, the childishness, the lack of intelligence; the dullness that is vagueness, obfuscation, ignorance, the Flood (ogha) of ignorance, the Bond (yoga) of ignorance, the biasignorance is a bias, it continually lies latent, in the sense of being firmly fixed. of ignorance, the obsession of ignorance, the barrier of ignorance; the dullness that is the root of badness—this is the dullness that there then is.

“Delusion” has the characteristic of blindness or opposition to knowledge; the essence of non-penetration, or the function of covering the intrinsic nature of the object; the manifestation of being opposed to right practiceIn Pāli: patipatti. The English text translates here as: right conduct. or causing blindness; the proximate cause of unwise attention; and should be regarded as the root of all immoralities.

Now it occurs to him: A good thing in sooth for me to be thus served by a housefather or a housefather's son! Then he thinks: I should indeed be glad to have this housefather or housefather's son serve me in like manner in the future. Thus he enjoys that almsgiving and is attracted by it, infatuated with it, attached to it. He sees not danger therein. He is blind to the escape therefrom. The result is that his train of thought is sensual, malevolent and harmful to others. Now, monks, I declare that what is given to such a monk has no great fruit. Why so? Because the monk lives amiss.

“'Ignorance! Ignorance!' is the saying, friend Sāriputta. Pray, friend, what is ignorance, and how far is one ignorant?” “Herein, friend, the untaught manyfolk know not as it really is the satisfaction in, the misery of, the escape from body. So with feeling, perception, the activities…they know not the satisfaction in, the misery of, the escape from consciousness. This, friend, is ignorance, and thus far is one ignorant.”

This was said by the Exalted One… “Monks, ignorance leads the way to the attainment of unprofitable things; shamelessness and disregard of blame follow after. But, monks, knowledge leads the way to the attainment of profitable things, shrinking and fear of blame follow after.”

…It has mental excitement as characteristic like wind-tossed water; wavering as function, like a flag waving in the wind; whirling as manifestation like scattered ashes struck by a stone; unsystematic thought owing to mental excitement as proximate cause; and it should be regarded as mental distraction over an object of excitement.

…But a greedy, foolish monkey comes up to the pitch and handles it with one paw, and his paw sticks fast in it. Then, thinking: I'll free my paw, he seizes it with the other paw, but that too sticks fast. To free both paws he seizes them with one foot, and that too sticks fast. To free both paws and the one foot, he lays hold of them with the other foot, but that too sticks fast. To free both paws and both feet he lays hold of them with his muzzle: but that too sticks fast. So that monkey thus trapped in five ways lies down and howls, thus fallen on misfortune…

…And what monks, is the unariyan quest? As to this, monks, someone, liable to birth because of self, seeks what is likewise liable to birth; being liable to ageing because of self, seeks what is likewise liable to ageing; being liable to decay because of self…being liable to dying because of self…being liable to sorrow because of self…being liable to stain because of self, seeks what is likewise liable to stain. And what, monks, would you say is liable to birth? Sons and wife, monks, are liable to birth, women-slaves and men-slaves are liable to birth, goats and sheep are liable to birth, cocks and swine are liable to birth, elephants, cows, horses and mares are liable to birth, gold and silver are liable to birth. These attachments, monks, are liable to birth; yet this (man), enslaved, infatuated, addicted, being liable to birth because of self, seeks what is likewise liable to birth…

Therein, what is “having evil friends”? There are those persons who are without confidenceConfidence in what is wholesome., of wrong morality, without learning, mean, of no wisdom. That which is dependence on, strong dependence on, complete dependence on, approaching, approaching intimately, devotion to, complete devotion to, entanglement with them. This is called having evil friends.

…Whatsoever essence it derives from earth or water, all that conduces to its bitterness, its acridity, its unpleasantness. What is the cause of that? The ill nature of the seed. Just so, monks, in a man of perverted view, all deeds whatsoever…conduce to Ill. What is the cause of that? Monks, it is perverted view.

Herein, housefather, the untaught manyfolk, who discern not those who are ariyans, who are unskilled in the ariyan doctrine, who are untrained in the ariyan doctrine…they regard body as the self, they regard the self as having body, body as being in the self, the self as being in the body…

“Do not experience each other's object” means: Ear-consciousness does not experience the object of eye-consciousness; eye-consciousness does not experience the object of ear-consciousness either. Nose-consciousness does not experience the object of eye-consciousness; eye-consciousness does not experience the object of nose-consciousness either. Tongue-consciousness does not experience the object of eye-consciousness; eye-consciousness does not experience the object of tongue-consciousness either. Body-consciousness does not experience the object of eye-consciousness; eye-consciousness does not experience the object of body-consciousness either…

What is the Fetter of conceit? Conceit at the thought “I am the better man”; conceit at the thought “I am as good (as they)”; conceit at the thought “I am lowly”- all such sort of conceit, overweening conceitedness, loftiness, haughtiness, flaunting a flag, assumption, desire of the heart for self-advertisement—this is called conceit.

Therein, what is “over-estimating conceit”? In not having reached, there is perception of having reached; in not having done, there is perception of having done; in not having attained, there is perception of having attained; in not having realized, there is perception of having realized; that which is similar, conceit, being conceited, the state of being conceited, loftiness, haughtiness, (flaunting a) flag, assumption, desire of consciousness for a banner. This is called over-estimating conceit.

Therein what are “nine bases of vexation”? “He has done me harm”, thus vexation arises; “He is doing me harm”, thus vexation arises; “He will do me harm”, thus vexation arises; “He has done harm, …he is doing harm, …he will do harm to one dear and pleasant to me”, thus vexation arises; “He has done good, …he is doing good, …he will do good to one not dear and not pleasant to me”, thus vexation arises. These are nine bases of vexation.

Monks, five are lost in hell who lie festering, incurable. What five? (By him) has his mother been deprived of life; his father; an arahat; (by him), with evil thought, has the Tathāgata's blood been drawn; (by him) has the Order been embroiled. Verily, monks, these are the five lost in hell who lie festering, incurable.

…“Or when vexation (springs up) groundlessly” means anger without reason; for example, someone gets angry saying “it rains too much”, “it does not rain”, “the sun shines too much”, “it does not shine”; gets angry when the wind blows, when it does not blow, gets angry at being unable to sweep away the Bodhi leaves, at being unable to put on his robe; he gets angry with the wind, in slipping he gets angry with a tree-stump…

…of what sort, monks, is the one whose mind is like an open sore? Herein a certain person is irritable and turbulent. When anything, no matter how trifling, is said to him, he becomes enraged, he gets angry and quarrelsome: he resents it and displays anger, hatred and sulkiness. Just as, for instance, when a festering sore, if struck by a stick or shard, discharges matter all the more, even so, monks, a certain person…displays anger, hatred and sulkiness. This one is called “He whose mind is like an open sore”…

Even so, monks, some monk here is very gentle, very meek, very tranquil so long as disagreeable ways of speech do not assail him. But when disagreeable ways of speech assail the monk it is then that he is to be called gentle, is to be called meek, is to be called tranquil…

The five meannesses, (to wit) meanness as regards dwelling, families, gifts, reputation, dhamma—all this sort of meanness, grudging, mean spirit, avarice and ignobleness, niggardliness and want of generosity of heart—this is called the fetter of meanness.

A “niggardly” person seeing mendicants causes his mind to shrink as by sourness. His state is “niggardliness”. Another way (of definition):- “niggardliness is a “spoon-feeding”. For when the pot is full to the brim, one takes food from it by a spoon with the edge bent on all sides; it is not possible to get a spoonful; so is the mind of a mean person bent in. When it is bent in, the body also is bent in, recedes, is not diffused—thus stinginess is said to be niggardliness. “Lack of generosity of heart” is the state of a mind which is shut and gripped, so that it is not stretched out in the mode of making gifts, etc., in doing service to others. But because the mean person wishes not to give to others what belongs to himself, and wishes to take what belongs to others, therefore this meanness should be understood to have the characteristic of hiding or seizing one's own property, occurring thus: “May it be for me and not for another”…

…one who extols his own praises and not those of others; who mentions this and that fault of anyone saying, “What praise does he deserve?” and does not impart any doctrine of learning to him, becomes ugly, or has a mouth dripping with saliva…

…It has repentance as characteristic, sorrow at deeds of commission and omission as function, regret as manifestation, deeds of commission and omission as proximate cause, and it should be regarded as a state of bondage.

Which are the states that conduce to remorse?: Misconduct in act, word and thought. Besides, all bad states conduce to remorse. Which are the states that do not conduce to remorse? Good conduct in act, word and thought. Besides, no good states (absence of good states) conduce to remorse.

What is worry (kukkucca)? Consciousness of what is lawful in something that is unlawful; consciousness of what is unlawful in something that is lawfulReferring to rules pertaining to things such as kinds of food or the hour of the meal. ; consciousness of what is immoral in something that is moral; consciousness of what is moral in something that is immoral—all this sort of worry, fidgeting, overscrupulousness, remorse of conscience, mental scarifying- this is what is called worry.

The compound “sloth-torpor” is sloth plus torpor; of which sloth has absence of, or opposition to striving as characteristic, destruction of energy as function, sinking of associated states as manifestation; torpor has unwieldiness as characteristic, closing the doors of consciousness as function, shrinking in taking the object, or drowsiness as manifestation; and both have unsystematic thought, in not arousing oneself from discontent and laziness (or indulgence), as proximate cause.

Now a certain monk approached his preceptor and said: “My body, sir, is as it were drugged; the quarters are not seen by me; things Dhammas. The commentary, the “Manorathapūraṇī”, explains: samatha and vipassanā do not appear to that monk. are not clear to me; sloth and torpor compass my heart about and stay; joyless, I live the holy life; and doubt about things are ever with me.”

“Monk, it is ever thus! When one dwells with doors of the senses unguarded, with no moderation in eating, not bent on vigilance, not looking for righteous things, nor day in day out practise the practice of making become things that are wings to enlightenment; then is the body as though drugged, the quarters are not seen, things are not clear, sloth and torpor compass the heart and stay; joyless, one lives the godly life; and doubts about things are ever with one”.

Sadly, monks, lives the man of sloth, involved in bad, wicked things. Great is the salvation which he fails to win. But he of stirred up energy lives happily, aloof from bad, wicked things. Great is the salvation that he makes perfect.

…It has shifting about as characteristic, mental wavering as function, indecision or uncertainty in grasp as manifestation, unsystematic thought (unwise attention) as proximate cause, and it should be regarded as a danger to attainment.

…“Fluctuation” is the inability to establish anything in one mode, thus, “Is this state permanent, or is it impermanent?” Because of the inability to “comprehend” there is “uncertainty of grasp”….

Monks, I know not of any other single thing of such power to cause the arising of doubt and wavering, if not already arisen; or, if arisen, to cause its more-becoming and increase, as unsystematic attention. In him who gives not systematic attention arises doubt and wavering, if not already arisen; or, if arisen, it is liable to more-becoming and increase.

In these ways he is not wisely attending: if he thinks, “Now, was I in a past period? Now, was I not in a past period? Now, what was I in a past period? Now, how was I in a past period? Now, having been what, what did I become in a past period?….

…Having seen dhamma, attained dhamma, known dhamma, plunged into dhamma, having crossed over doubt, put away uncertainty and attained without another's help to full confidence in the Teacher's instruction…

Monks, I know not of any other single thing of such power to cause the arising of sensual lust, if not already arisen, or, if arisen, to cause its more-becoming and increase, as the feature of beauty (in things). In him who pays not wise attention to the feature of beauty, sensual lust, if not already arisen, arises; or, if already arisen, is liable to more becoming and increase. Monks, I know not of any other single thing of such power to cause the arising of malevolence, if not already arisen, or, if arisen, to cause its more-becoming and increase, as the repulsive feature (of things). In him who pays not wise attention to the repulsive feature, malevolence, if not already arisen, arises; or, if arisen, it is liable to more-becoming and increase.

Monks, a rajah's goodly thorough-bred endowed with six points is fit for a rajah, is a rajah's asset, is reckoned a rajah's portion. What six? Herein, monks, the goodly thorough-bred endures forms, sounds, smells, tastes, touches and has beauty…Even so, monks, a monk with six qualities is worthy of offerings…the world's peerless field for merit. What six? Herein, monks, a monk endures forms, sounds, smells, tastes, touches and things of the mind. Verily, monks, a monk with these six qualities is worthy of offerings…

By kusala is meant (moral) “good” in the sense of destroying or disturbing contemptible states; or in the sense of wholesomeness, faultlessness, and accomplishment by skill…

its characteristic is that it has faultless, happy results, its function is the destruction of immoralities, its manifestation is purity, its proximate cause is wise attention.

its characteristic is faultlessness by being opposed to fault, its function is purity, its manifestation is desirable results, its proximate cause is wise attention.

…It has purifying or aspiring as its characteristic. As the water-purifying gem of the universal monarch thrown into water causes solids, alluvia, waterweeds and mud to subside and makes the water clear, transparent and undisturbed, so faith arising discards the hindrances, causes the corruptions to subside, purifies the mind and makes it undisturbed; the mind being purified, the aspirant of noble family gives gifts, observes the precepts, performs the duties of “uposatha”Uposatha days are days of fasting or vigil; uposatha is observed on the days of full-moon and new-moon, and sometimes also on the days of the first and last moon-quarter. In Buddhist countries there is a tradition for lay-followers to visit temples and to observe eight precepts on these days. , and commences bhāvanā. Thus faith should be known to have purifying as its characteristic…

…So faith is the forerunner, the precursor to one who is giving gifts, observing the precepts, performing the duties of uposatha and commencing bhāvanā. Hence it has been said: Faith has purifying and aspiring as its characteristic.

…Faith has confiding as its characteristic; purifying as its function, like the water-purifying gem, or aspiring faith as function, like the crossing of the floods; freedom from pollution or decision as its manifestation; an object worthy of faith or factors of “streamwinning” as its proximate cause.

…Excellent, good Gotama, excellent, good Gotama. It is as if one might set upright what had been upset, or might disclose what was covered, or show the way to one who had gone astray, or bring an oil-lamp into the darkness so that those with vision might see material shapes—even so in many a figure has dhamma been made clear by the reverend Gotama. Thus I am going to the reverend Gotama for refuge, to the Dhamma and to the Order of monks. May the reverend Gotama accept me as a layfollower going for refuge from today forth for as long as life lasts.

“From the overcoming of lack of faith, faith is a controlling faculty in the sense of predominance, or in its characteristic of decision it exercises lordship (over associated states).”

The faith which on that occasion is a trusting in, the professing confidence in, the sense of assurance, faith, faith as a faculty and as a power—this is the faith that there then is.

…For one strong in faith and weak in understanding has confidence uncritically and groundlessly. One strong in understanding and weak in faith errs on the side of cunning and is as hard to cure as one sick of a disease caused by medicine. With the balancing of the two a man has confidence only when there are grounds for it…

I, monks, do not say that the attainment of profound knowledge comes straightaway; nevertheless, monks, the attainment of profound knowledge comes by a gradual training, a gradual doing, a gradual course. And how, monks, does the attainment of profound knowledge come by means of a gradual training, a gradual doing, a gradual course? As to this, monks, one who has faith draws close; drawing close, he sits down near by; sitting down near by he lends ear; lending ear he hears dhamma; having heard dhamma he remembers it; he tests the meaning of the things he has borne in mind; while testing the meaning the things are approved of; there being approval of the things desirekusalacchanda, “wish-to-do” which is kusala. is born; with desire born he makes an effort; having made the effort he weighs it up; having weighed it up he strives; being self-resolute he realizes himself the highest truth itself and, penetrating it by means of wisdom, he sees…

…Mindfulness has “not floating away” as its characteristic, unforgetfulness as its function, guarding, or the state of facing the object, as its manifestation, firm remembrance (saññā) or application in mindfulness as regards the body, etc. , as proximate cause. It should be regarded as a door-post from being firmly established in the object, and as a door-keeper from guarding the door of the senses.

…When it is said, “Six internal sense-fields are to be understood”, in reference to what is it said? It is in reference to the sense-field of eye, the sense-field of ear, the sense-field of nose, the sense-field of tongue, the sense-field of body, the sense-field of mind. When it is said, “Six internal sense-fields are to be understood”, it is said in reference to this. This is the first Six. When it is said, “Six external sense-fields are to be understood”, in reference to what is it said? It is in reference to the sense-field of material shapes, the sense-field of sounds, the sense-field of smells, the sense-field of tastes, the sense-field of touches, the sense-field of mental states. When it is said, “Six external sense-fields are to be understood”, it is said in reference to this. This is the second Six. When it is said, “Six classes of consciousness are to be understood”, in reference to what is it said? It is in reference to the visual consciousness that arises because of eye and material shapes; the auditory consciousness that arises because of ear and sounds; the olfactory consciousness that arises because of nose and smells; the gustatory consciousness that arises because tongue and tastes; the bodily consciousness that arises because of body and touches; the mental consciousness that arises because of mind and mental states. When it is said, “Six classes of consciousness are to be understood”, it is said in reference to this. This is the third Six…

Therein what is “heedlessness”? Wrong bodily action or wrong verbal action or wrong mental action or the succumbing and repeated succumbing of consciousness to the five strands of sense pleasures or not working carefully, not working constantly, working spasmodically, being stagnant, relinquishing wish (desire-to-do, chanda), relinquishing the task, non-pursuance, non-development, non-repetition, non-resolution, non-practising, heedlessness in the development of good states; that which is similar, heedlessness, being heedless, state of being heedless. This is called heedlessness.

What on that occasion is the faculty of mindfulness? The mindfulness which on that occasion is recollecting, calling back to mind; the mindfulness which is remembering, bearing in mind, the opposite of superficiality and of obliviousness; mindfulness as faculty (indriya), mindfulness as power (bala), right mindfulness— this is the faculty of mindfulness that there then is.

…“non-superficiality” (in the sense of diving or entering into the object) is the state of not letting the object float away. Not as pumpkins and pots, etc., which float on the water and do not sink therein, does mindfulness sink into the object. Hence it is said to be non-superficiality…

…It exercises government (over associated states) in the characteristic of presenting or illuminating the object—this is the faculty of mindfulness.

The five wholesome controlling faculties, the “spiritual faculties”, must be developed in samatha in order to attain jhāna and in vipassanā in order to attain enlightenment. It is our nature to be forgetful of the reality which appears now, but gradually mindfulness can be accumulated. It can even become a “power”.

It has conscientious scruples (hiriyati) about bodily misconduct, etc., thus it is conscience (hiri). This is a term for modesty. It is ashamed (ottappati) of those same things, thus it is shame (ottappa). This is a term for anxiety about evil. Herein, conscience has the characteristic of disgust at evil, while shame (ottappa) has the characteristic of dread of it. Conscience has the function of not doing evil and that in the mode of modesty, while shame has the function of not doing it and that in the mode of dread. They are manifested as shrinking from evil in the way already stated. Their proximate causes are self-respect and respect of others (respectively)…

…For when conscience (hiri) and shame (ottappa) are in existence, virtue arises and persists; and when they are not, it neither arises nor persists…

Monks, possessed of five qualities, an elder becomes not what he ought to become… He is without faith (saddhā), modesty (hiri), fear of blame (ottappa), he is lazy and lacks insight… Monks, possessed of five qualities an elder becomes what he ought to become… He has faith, modesty, fear of blame, he is diligent and develops insight…

The sense of guilt which there is on that occasion, where a sense of guilt ought to be felt, a sense of guilt at attaining to bad and evil states—that is the fear of blame that there then is.

…absence of greed (alobha) has the characteristic of the mind being free from cupidity for an object of thought, or of its being detached, like a drop of water on a lotus leaf. It has the function of not appropriating, like an emancipated monk, and the manifestation of detachment, like a man fallen into a foul place…

…Not being dependent upon anything, a sage holds nothing as being pleasant or unpleasant. Lamentation and avarice do not cling to him, as water does not cling to a (lotus-)leaf. Just as a drop of water does not cling to a (lotus-)leaf, as water does not cling to a lotus, so a sage does not cling to what is seen or heard or thought. Therefore a purified one does not think that purity is by means of what is seen, heard, or thought, nor does he wish for purity by anything elseBy any other way than the Noble Eightfold Path, according to the commentary. See the Discourse Collection, Wheel Publication no. 82, B.P.S. Kandy.. He is neither impassioned nor dispassioned.

…“What do you think about this, sire? Is your daughter Vajīrī dear to you?” “Yes, Mallikā. My daughter Vajīrī is dear to me.” “What do you think about this, sire? From an alteration and otherness in your daughter Vajīrī would there arise in you grief, sorrow, suffering, lamentation and despair?” “From an alteration and otherness, Mallikā, in my daughter Vajīrī there would be a change for me, even for life. How should there not arise in me grief, sorrow, suffering, lamentation and despair?” “It was in reference to this, sire, that it was said by the Lord, who knows, who sees, perfected one, fully Self-Awakened One: 'Grief, sorrow, suffering, lamentation and despair are born of affection, originate in affection.' …” The Queen then asked the same question with regard to the noble lady Vāsabhā, the King's consort, General Viḍūḍabha, the son of the King and Vāsabhā, and the peoples of Kāsi and Kosala. The King then understood the truth of the Buddha's words and he thereupon paid respect to the Buddha and uttered words of praise.

…Absence of hate has the characteristic of freedom from churlishness or resentment, like an agreeable friend; the function of destroying vexation, or dispelling distress, like sandalwood; the manifestation of being pleasing, like the full moon…

…Absence of hate is the cause of youthfulness, for the man of no hate, not being burnt by the fire of hate, which brings wrinkles and grey hairs, remains young for a long time…

…Absence of hate is the cause of the production of friends, for through love friends are obtained, not lost…

Good-will is that which does not ruin one's own or another's bodily or mental happiness, worldly or future advantage and good report.

“…Rajahs, for some reason, took by force and slew my only son, Nanda, who was dear and precious to me; yet when the boy was seized or being seized, bound or being bound, slain or being slain, I knew no disquietness of heart.” “It is marvellous and wonderful, O mother of Nanda, that you should have so purged the surges of the heart.” “Nor is that all, reverend sir…When my husband died, he rose among the yakkasNon-human being. ; and he revealed himself to me in his old form; but I knew no disquietness of heart on that account.”

…is it not the fact that when your Master was a Bodhisatta before discovering full enlightenment, while he was still engaged in fulfilling the Perfections during the four incalculable ages and a hundred thousand aeons, he did not allow hate to corrupt his mind even when his enemies tried to murder him on various occasions? For example, in the Sīlavant Birth Story (Jātakas I, 261) when his friends rose to prevent his kingdom of three hundred leagues being seized by an enemy king who had been incited by a wicked minister in whose mind his own queen had sown hate for him, he did not allow them to lift a weapon. Again when he was buried, along with a thousand companions, up to the neck in a hole dug in the earth in a charnel ground, he had no thought of hate. And when, after saving his life by a heroic effort helped by jackals scrapping away soil when they had come to devour the corpses, he went with the aid of a spirit to his own bedroom and saw his enemy lying on his own bed, he was not angry but treated him as a friend, undertaking mutual pledge, and he then exclaimed:

Equanimity is characterized as promoting the aspect of neutrality towards beings. Its function is to see equality in beings. It is manifested as the quieting of resentment and approval. Its proximate cause is seeing ownership of deeds (kamma) thus: “Beings are owners of their deeds. Whose (if not theirs) is the choice by which they will become happy, or will get free from suffering, or will not fall away from the success they have reached?” It succeeds when it makes resentment and approval subside, and it fails when it produces the equanimity of unknowing, which is that (worldly-minded indifference of ignorance) based on the home-life.

Herein, six-factored equanimity is a name for the equanimity in one whose cankers are destroyed. It is the mode of non-abandonment of the natural state of purity when desirable or undesirable objects of the six kinds come into focus in the six doors described thus: “Here a bhikkhu whose cankers are destroyed is neither glad nor sad on seeing a visible object with the eye: he dwells in equanimity, mindful and fully aware.” (Gradual Sayings, Book of the Sixes, Chapter I, par 1).

…As regards characteristic, etc., it has been said that each of these three does not trespass nor tread on objects of the other two. They have the function of shrinking from the same; and they have faith (saddhā), sense of shame (hiri), fear of blame (ottappa), contentment and more, as proximate antecedents. They should be regarded as produced by the averted state of the mind from evil action.

Monks, these five trades ought not to be plied by a lay-disciple. What five? Trade in weapons, trade in human beings, trade in flesh, trade in spirits and trade in poison. Verily, monks, these five trades ought not to be plied by a lay-disciple.

…When that Path has once arisen, not even the thought, “we will kill a creature”, arises in the ariyans.

Monks, there are five disadvantages to one wanting morals, failing in morals. What five? Consider, monks, the man without morals, failing in morals—he comes to suffer much loss in wealth through neglect. This, monks, is the first disadvantage to one wanting morals, failing in morals. Or an evil rumour spreads about him. This is the second disadvantage… Or whatever group he approach, whether nobles or brāhmans, householders or recluses, he does so without confidence and confused. This is the third disadvantage… Or he dies muddled (in thought). This is the fourth disadvantage… Or on the breaking up of the body after death he arises in the wayward way, the ill way, the abyss, hell. This is the fifth disadvantage… Verily, monks, these are the five disadvantages to one wanting morals, failing in morals. (The opposite is said of one perfect in morals.)

…Furthermore, on account of his unvirtuousness an unvirtuous person is displeasing to deities and human beings, is uninstructable by his fellows in the life of purity, suffers when unvirtuousness is censured, and is remorseful when the virtuous are praised…

…Monks, when speaking to others you might speak at a right time or at a wrong time; monks, when speaking to others you might speak according to fact or not according to fact; monks, when speaking to others you might speak gently or harshly; monks, when speaking to others you might speak about what is connected with the goal or about what is not connected with the goal; monks, when speaking to others you might speak with a mind of friendliness or full of hatred. Herein, monks, you should train yourselves thus: “Neither will our minds become perverted nor will we utter an evil speech, but kindly and compassionate will we dwell, with a mind of friendliness, void of hatred; and we will dwell having suffused that person with a mind of friendliness; and, beginning with him, we will dwell having suffused the whole world with a mind of friendliness that is far-reaching, wide-spread, immeasurable, without enmity, without malevolence.” This is how you must train yourselves, monks.

Compassion is characterized as promoting the aspect of allaying suffering. Its function resides in not bearing others' suffering. It is manifested as non-cruelty. Its proximate cause is to see helplessness in those overwhelmed by suffering. It succeeds when it makes cruelty subside and it fails when it produces sorrow.

Monks, possessing five qualities one who waits on the sick is not fit to help the sick. What five? He cannot prepare medicaments; does not know physic from what is not physic, offers what is not, does not offer what is; in hope of gain waits on the sick, not from good-will; loathes to move excrement, urine, puke and spittle; nor can he from time to time instruct, rouse, gladden and satisfy the sick with Dhamma-talk. Monks, possessing these five qualities one who waits on the sick is not fit to help the sick. (Possessing the opposite qualities he is fit to help.)

Monks, if a monk in residence follow the course of five things, he takes pity on householders. What five? He incites them to greater virtue; he makes them live in the mirror of Dhamma; when visiting the sick, he stirs up mindfulness, saying: “Let the venerable ones set up mindfulness, that thing most worth while!”; when many monks of the Order have come, he urges the householders to do good…; and when they give him food, whether mean or choice, he enjoys it by himself, nor frustrates (the effect of that) gift of faith. Verily, monks, …he takes pity on householders.

Four “infinitudes” (appamaññas), to wit:—herein, monks, a monk lets his mind pervade one quarter of the world with thoughts of love…pity…sympathetic joy…equanimity, and so the second quarter, and so the third, and so the fourth. And thus the whole wide world, above, below, around and everywhere does he continue to pervade with heart…far-reaching, grown great and beyond measure, free from anger and ill-will.

…He does not rejoice over your misfortunes; he rejoices over your prosperity; he refrains anyone who is speaking ill of you; he commends anyone who is praising you.

One sleeps happy and wakes happy; he sees no evil dream; he is dear to human beings and non-human beings alike; the devas guard him; fire, poison or sword affect him not; quickly he concentrates his mind; his complexion is serene; he makes an end without bewilderment; and if he has penetrated no further (to arahatship) he reaches (at death) the Brahma-world…

Then he thus ponders: This heart's release by amity…by compassion…by sympathy…by equanimity is just a higher product; it is produced by higher thought. Then he comes to know: Now even that which is a higher product, produced by higher thought, is impermanent, of a nature to end. Fixed on that idea he wins destruction of the cankers; or if not that, yet by his passion for dhamma, by his delight in dhamma, by utterly making and end of the five fetters belonging to this world, he is reborn spontaneously, and in that state passes utterly away, never to return (hither) from that world.

Understanding has the penetration of intrinsic nature, unfaltering penetration as its characteristic, like the penetration of an arrow shot by a skilled archer; illumination of the object as its function, as it were a lamp; non-perplexity as its proximate cause, as it were a good guide in the forest.